/ I ^"^ 



ft? . 



PREFACE 

This book was begun as a proprietary publication, but as it 
lon developed beyond the scope of such a work it was turned 
to a scientific handbook for general use by the exclusion from 
le text of everything of an advertising nature, and by the addi- 

fn of what seemed to be the most desirable technical infor^a- 
n available. It is believed that the work will be of use in 
jbmoting the progress of the knitting industry. 

I 

1 WILDMAN MFG. CO. 

Norristown, Pa. 

I 



T> 




m 



CONTENTS 



Topics only. See lists of illustrations and of tables following this, and index 
at back of book. 

Page 

Preface {[{ 

Conventions 1 

Abbreviations 2 

Suggestions for a course of reading (with subdivisions, 

which see) 2 

Yarn diameter 12 

Elements of knitting (with subdivisions, which see) 14 

Practical variations from knitting rules (with subdivisions, 

which see) 34 

Explanation of formulas for regular rib fabrics 36 

Explanation of regular flat fabric formulas — loop-wheel . . ' 45 

Yarn-cut rules 49 

Yarn-gauge rules 51 

The relation of the diameter of the yarn to the needle 

spacing 53 

Width of flattened tube of fabric for different numbers of 

needles and yarn 57 

Width of fabric from different machines 63 

Production of circular knitting machines (with subdivisions, 

which see) qq 

Relative production of different types of knitting machine . 84 

Weight per square yard formula — derivation 89 

Determining weight per square yard by weighing 95 

Two-thread knitting (with subdivisions, which see) 95 

Twist in flat knit fabric made with self-feeding needles 

(with subdivisions, which see) 101 

Twist in rib fabric 112 

Summary regarding twist of knit fabrics (with subdivisions, 

which see) 1 13 

^6t 116 

Space allotment in knitting mills (with subdivisions, 

which see) Hy 

V 



vi Contents 

Page 

Relation of machine gauge and cut , 124 

Gauge, different standards 125 

Needles per inch of hosiery machines and ribbers measured 

from back to back of needles 128 

Range of fabrics from the same gauge or cut 138 

Yarn for flat cotton fleece goods 138 

Sinker bur 140 

Lander bur 146 

Cast-off bur 147 

Trouble, cause and remedy — spring-needle loop-wheel. . . . 150 

Tuck-stitch figures — latch-needle 153 

Vertical patterns in latch-needle knitting 155 

Names of cams 160 

Adjusting in general 160 

Putting needles into ribber 161 

Hooking fabric on ribber 164 

Ribber take-up 166 

Locating sources of trouble in rib knitting 167 

Stitch adjustment 168 

Adjusting the yarn carrier 171 

Rib knitting — trouble, cause and remedy 171 

Yarn counts (with subdivisions, which see) 187 

Counts used for different kinds of yarns (with subdivisions, 

which see) 189 

Explanation of convenient equations for determining the 

number of yarn in the constant weight counts 190 

Single equivalent of two or more yarns 192 

Explanation of yarn-transformation table 193 

Yarn rules for different yarn counts 193 

Figure designing with pattern wheels (with subdivisions, 

which see) 199 

Economics of knitting (with subdivisions, which see) 249 

Minimum weight per square yard 263 

Theory of knit fabrics (with subdivisions, which see) 266 

Theory of knit fabrics — general considerations 272 

Ratio and proportion (with subdivisions, which see) 276 

Measures 277 

Mensuration (with subdivisions, which see) 286 

Miscellaneous notes on belting (with subdivisions, which 

see) 290 

Analogies between the flow of water and electricity 293 



ILLUSTRATIONS 



List of contents (topics) precedes this. List of tables follows this. Index is 
at back of book. 

D 

Number Page 

Diagram of double tucks cleared by lap 46 246 

of sample design 42 235 

F 

Fabric, circular, ribbon structure 4 202 

figured, sample 41 232 

flat, back 2 17 

face 1 16 

with right-hand twist 5 107 

range, from the same gauge or cut 1-2 138 

regular relations ; . , . . 7 33 

relation of wales and courses for stitches per foot 

constant 5 28 

relation of width and breadth for stitches per foot 

constant 6 30 

rib, effect of yarn twist on fabric twist 112 

regular relations 2 270 

relations for yarn variable 1 269 

with wales spread apart 3 19 

K 

Knots 275 

L 

Loops, normal and twisted, outlines 4 106 

M 

Machine, Machines, diagram of American circular ... 3 202 

diagram of French circular 2 202 

vii 



viii Illustrations 

Number Page 

Machine, types of circular . 1-8 204 

type which does not twist yarn 7 110 

type which twists yarn 6 109 

N 

Needle, latch, with double-thread loops 2 100 

spring, with double-thread loops 1 97 

P 

Pattern developments: 

figure, divided ; two-division overlap right-hand . . 29 222 

two-division under lap ; right-hand 30 222 

incUned; overlap; right-hand 23 219 

vertical; overlap; left-hand 26 222 

over-lap; right-hand 24 219 

underlap; left-hand 28 222 

underlap ; right-hand 27 222 

stripes, diagonal; overlap; right-hand 22 219 

inclined; overlap; left-hand 25 222 

overlap; right-hand 21 219 

vertical 20 219 

Pattern, exception to general rule 47-50 247 

Pattern, exceptional, disposition of elements 51 248 

Pattern lengths usable with 65 needles 40 229 

Pattern models: 

figure, inclined; overlap; right-hand 13 218 

vertical; overlap; right-hand 14 218 

stripes, diagonal; overlap; right-hand 12 218 

inclined; overlap; right-hand 11 218 

vertical 10 218 

Patterns, numerical, of five divisions, for cylinder 
needles equal to: 

one pattern division 32 225 

two pattern divisions 33 225 

three pattern divisions 34 225 

four pattern divisions 35 225 

six pattern divisions 36 225 

seven pattern divisions 37 225 

eight pattern divisions 38 225 

nine pattern divisions 39 225 



Illustrations ix 

Number Page 

Pattern positions, plan 226 

Pattern, strip, detail 43 238 

Presser model 44 240 

reversed 55 240 

positions 5 209 

S 

Stitch, Stitches, double tuck 7 212 

single tuck 6 211 

successive tucks in the same course 8 213 

tight rib 4 21 

tuck block in a mixed field 9 215 

very loose, flat fabric 1 264 

Y 

Yarn-cut chart for latch-needle rib machine 50 

Yarn delivery from bobbin and cone 2 104 

Yarn diameter, determination , 13 

Yarn diameter, relation to needle spacing 57 

Yarn-gauge chart for spring-needle machine 52 

Yarn twist illustrated by strip of paper coiled on 

pencil 1 102 



TABLES 



Contents (topics) and list of illustrations precedes this. Index is at back 

of book. 

A 

Page 

Abbreviations 2 

C 

Circles, circumferences and areas 280 

Cuts, measured on needle line 130 

F 

Fabric, Fabrics, flat, fundamental relations 45 

flat, regular dimensions \ 48 

formulas 46-47 

rib, fundamental relations 36 

regular formulas 38-39 

dimensions. 40 

weight per square yard 90-91 

weight formula for different counts 94 

transformations 93 

width, proportion of machine width 65 

tubular, width 59 

Feeds and pattern divisions for 24 courses 235 

G 

Gauge, definitions 127 

I 

Inch, fractions, decimal equivalents 277 

Inventions, knitting 265 

K 

Knitting, latch-needle; trouble, cause and remedy 172 

spring-needle; trouble, cause and remedy 150 

xi 



xii Tables 

M 

Page 

Machine, body, latch-needle, performance 185 

Motions, machines and fabric 204-205 

N 

Needle, Needles, cylinder, for a 30 needle pattern 237 

per inch, different gauges 126 

measured on cam surface 175 

simple factors for small machines 128 

simple calculations . 129 

spring, dimensions and data 149 

in loop-wheel cylinders 154 

leaded, weight per thousand 149 

Numbers, squares, cubes, square roots and cube roots 278 

P 

Power, electrical 294 

for machines, auxiliary 121 

latch-needle rib and winders 122 

loop wheel 123 

knitting mill 122-123 

leather belt 289 

proportionate distribution in knitting mill 123 

transmitted by shafting 288 

Production, calculations, hanks 69 

hnear yards 68 

pounds 69 

square yards 68 

factors, rib and flat 89 

linear yards 76-77 

loop- wheel, hanks ; . . 74 

relative, rib and flat fabrics 85-87-88 

rib fabric, hanks 73 

pounds 72 

rib tops, dozen pairs 82-83 

square yards, general 79 

regular fabric 81 

winder, nutaper 114 

upright, bobbin 115 



Tables xiii 
R 

Page 

Ribber, Wildman, circumference 184 

diameter 184 

S 

Space, floor, in knitting mills 118 

Stitches, maximum and minimum 186 

T 

Trigonometric functions, natural 282 

V 

Velocity of needles and yarn 159 

Y 

Yarn-cut relations, rib 73 

Yarn-gauge and yarn-cut rules for different counts 195 

Yarn, Yarns, counts, convenient equations for determining. 191 

counts, definitions '. 188 

diameter and coils ' 196 

proportion- of needle spacing 56 

for flat cotton fleeced goods 139 

latch-needle rib machine 163 

loop-wheel machine 129 

number and relative diameter and cube of diameter . . . 262 

rules for different machines 53 

single equivalent of two yarns 198 

transformation constants 194 



THE SCIENCE OF KNITTING 



CONVENTIONS 

The meaning of many of the technical terms used in this 
book is explained when they are brought into use, but the 
meaning of the most used terms and conventions is given here 
in order to make sure that they will be understood in case the 
explanation may not be with them when they are encountered. 

Cut is used instead of needles per inch, both because it is 
quite generally so used and because it is much shorter than 
needles per inch. The only objection to its use is that it might 
be confused with the word cut used to designate the size of 
yarn, but since the yarn cut is restricted, is really unnecessary, 
and is not used with reference to the machine, there is not 
much chance for confusion. On the contrary, there are good 
reasons for abandoning it in favor of a familiar substitute, such 
as the cotton number, and leaving the word cut for use entirely 
instead of needles per inch. 

Right Hand, applied to circular motion (or the result of it), 
means the direction of revolution of a right-hand screw when 
entering a solid body. 

Clockwise means the direction of motion of the hands of a 
clock, which for circular motion is the same as right hand. 

Left Hand is the reverse of right hand. 

Anti-clockwise is the reverse of clockwise. 

Forward means the direction of motion of whatever is the sub- 
ject of discussion — such as yarn, machine, fabric, etc. 

Backward means the reverse of forward. 

Number means yarn number in the cotton count unless 
otherwise specified. 

A Constant means a number which does not change, such as 
3.1416, the number which expresses the ratio of the circum- 
ference of a circle to its diameter. 

A Variable means a number which does change. The age of 
anything is a variable, since it is constantly changing. 

1 



2 The Science of Knitting 

Gauge, applied to the needle spacing or to the fineness of 
cloth, means needles per inch and one-half, which is substan- 
tially the original meaning of the word as applied to knitting. 

Gauge, applied to needles, means the thickness of latch needles. 
There is] no rule for determining the gauge from this dimension, 
so tables have to be consulted for such information. Other 
dimensions of the needle, such as size of hook, length of latch, 
etc., correspond to an extent to the gauge, but have no fixed 
relation to it. For instance, a 48-gauge needle has a certain 
thickness and a fine hook, but the hook may be more or less fine. 

Diametral Revolutions means the product of the diameter in 
inches and the revolutions per minute of a revolving circle, 
such as a knitting machine, pulley or similar object. A 20- 
inch cylinder making 35 revolutions per minute is running at 
20 X 35 = 700 diametral revolutions. 



dia 





Abbreviations 


Abbreviation 


Meaning 


+ 


Increased by 


— 


Decreased by 


X 


Multiplied by 


-^ 


Divided by 


= 


Equals 


dia. 


Diameter 


r.p.m. 


Revolutions per minute 


. r.p.m. 


Diametral revolutions 


V 


Square root of 


i.e. 


That is 


e.g. 


For instance 


q.v. 


Which see. 



SUGGESTIONS FOR A COURSE OF READING 

If all knowledge of machine knitting were taken out of the 
world, and a perfect knitting machine, say a rib body machine 
for example, were set down in a knitting center, such as 
Leicester, England, or Utica, New York, with no more informa- 
tion than the assurance that it would knit cloth, it is safe to 
say that after repeated efforts to hook on the fabric and get it 
started, the machine would be so damaged and the operators so 
discouraged, that it would be pronounced an impossibility to 
make cloth on such a machine. 



Suggestions for a Course of Reading 3 

Somewhat similarlj^, if a book announcing and demonstrating 
a system of knitting calculations is put into the hands of readers 
who do not even know that there is system in knitting, and 
most of whom are unfamiliar with mathematical demonstrations, 
such a book would not be very beneficial without an explanation 
of how to use it. 

Other important callings, civil engineering and mechanical 
engineering for examples, have their handbooks; but before the 
appearance of such books, the readers were prepared to un- 
derstand them by technical school and college instruction. 

Moreover, if the author of these knitting calculations fre- 
quently finds it necessary to take paper and pencil and carefully 
work out something which he himself has written in order to re- 
understand it, how much more will assistance be useful to one 
who has never heard of a knitting system and has never been 
prepared to understand one if it should appear. 

Although the above considerations show the advisabihty of 
helps in the use of this book, there are other reasons why sym- 
pathy for the knitter and his calling should prompt a fa,miliar 
attempt to improve both, in spite of the prevailing unsympa- 
thetic custom of disseminating cold facts without aids to the 
understanding of them. 

One reason is the value of machine knitting to the human 
race. The frame tender in an obscure little mill who longs for 
bigger and better things seldom realizes that he is doing as 
much knitting as fourteen thousand grandmothers with their 
hand needles, and just as the product of that hand knitting 
benefited his immediate family, so his work, thousands of 
times more, benefits members of his bigger human family so 
numerous and so far away that he can never know them. 

Another reason is the opportunity to benefit the knitter as a 
class. Who is there with any experience in the industry who 
has not known of a knitter's leaving his home town for a better 
opening, and then drifting back with the remark, " Yes, the 
wages were better, but the machines ran the other way and the 
yarn count was different, and I couldn't catch onto it." What 
a commentary! A knitter at home and not abroad! Suppose 
the mechanic said, " I am a machinist in Saratoga County 
but not elsewhere." What kind of a machinist would he be? 
For what reason is a knitter's knowledge limited to one locality, 
when the machinist's, the carpenter's, the mason's is universal. 



4 The Science of Knitting 

For no reason. It is unreasonable. For what cause, then? 
Because the fundamentals have not been offered to him. 

Intimate acquaintance with the knitter and his surroundings 
shows the need of these appeals for improvement notwithstanding 
the fact that such appeals are unconventional and sure to be 
misunderstood by some who regard an offer of better educa- 
tional facilities as an imputation of ignorance. The error of 
such a position should be evident from the fact that the enlight- 
enment of the entire knitting world is ignorance compared to 
that of almost every other branch of human endeavor. 

It is what we retain which benefits us, not what we hear. 
A man might hear good sermons every Sunday of his life and 
good advice every week day, but if he retain nothing of either, 
he will not benefit thereby. Technical knowledge is not retain- 
able by the mere reading of it. The reader must take pencil 
and paper and put down in black and white the main truths 
if he is to be benefited by them. And while he is about it he 
might use a pen and indexed notebook and put those truths 
down where they will be readily available. Nystrom, in the 
preface to his handbook, put these words: " Every engineer 
should make his own pocket book, as he proceeds in study and 
practice, to suit his particular business." Nystrom's handbook 
has been superseded. Why? Largely because others made 
more complete handbooks from Nystrom's suggestion. And it 
is probable that this one sentence in Nystrom's book will be of 
more value to the world and live longer than all the rest of 
Nystrom's book put together, for the sentence will never become 
obsolete whereas the rest of the book will. Consequently, the 
knitter who does not begin the reading of this handbook by 
starting one of his own will miss not only the spirit and benefit 
of this book but he and the world will miss the benefit of his 
own book. 

What connects knitters all over the world? KJnit fabric. It 
may have been made by a Yankee, or a Frenchman, on a latch 
needle, or on a spring needle, on a round machine, or on a 
straight machine, — possibly^ an expert might tell some of the 
latter details, but every knitter recognizes the knit stitch itself, 
and every true knitter is attracted by it. Therefore, the way 
for broadening the knitter's horizon is through the fabric. But 
the fabric is made from yarn, so the beginning is there. This 
book does not treat of the composition of yarn, since such in- 



Suggestions for a Course of Reading 5 

formation may be found in numerous books and since one idea 
of this book is not to repeat except where improvement seems 
evident. Yarn composition is important and should be studied 
elsewhere, but yarn diameter is mechanically the most impor- 
tant and is treated here in. a readily understandable way under 

Yarn Diameter 

The student should read this topic carefully and then apply 
the principles by determining the diameter of some yarn. If 
no hosiery yarn is at hand, a few pieces of soft cord, such as is 
used for tying bundles, will answer the purpose. 

Elements of Knitting 

The first part of this is plain sailing, but it is important 
since it defines the terms commonly used in knitting. The 
student should learn the application of the terms, such as needle 
wale, sinker wale, course, etc., and should form the habit of 
using them. Otherwise the descriptions which follow will not 
be readily understood. 

The first mathematical portion of the elements is the deriva- 
tion of the general rule 

Cut2 



Yarn number = 



Constant 



This is one of the most important relations in knitting, so of 
course it is desirable that the student be able to derive it from 
the definitions of cut and number, since then he will not only 
understand it better, but will be able to conjure it up when he 
needs it. However, inability to derive the rule does not de- 
tract from its usefulness any more than does inabiUty to derive 
the rule for the horse power of a steam engine. Consequently, 
the derivation may be skipped by those who find it laborious, 
but the result should be thoroughly memorized. 

The latter part of the elements, that which contains the ex- 
planation of the underlying principles of knitting for (1) stitches 
constant, (2) yarn constant and (3) loops proportional to the 
diameter of the yarn, is very important. It is the theory of 
knitting put in language meant to be plain. It should be read 
with a pad and pencil at hand for working out the simple illus- 
trations in order to fix the principles; and should not be left 
until it is mastered since practically all that follows is dependent 
on it. 



6 The Science of Knitting 

Practical Variations from Knitting Rules 

This is easy reading but highly important for several reasons. 
In the first place, mere book learning is even more deficient 
than mere practical learning. So the student of books is justly 
under the suspicion of impracticability until he has proven 
otherwise; and the best way in which he can prove otherwise 
is to admit freely his limitations. Therefore, the student 
should learn as early as possible how much allowance to make 
between theory and practice. He should put every principle to 
the severest test and should not depend on memory for the 
results of the tests but should put down on paper the discrep- 
ancies between the rules and the actual results, and should 
then derive the average maximum and minimum errors. These 
results should be kept with each formula, for no formula is com- 
plete without knowledge of its reliability. The formulas for 
regular fabrics are so new that only a little such knowledge is 
available for them, therefore the user must find the rest for 
himself. 

Relation of Machine Gauge and Cut 

This should be learned. 

Yarn-gauge Rules and Charts for Latch-needle Rib and 
Spring-needle Loop-wheel Machines 

These rules connect the fabric with the machine which makes 
it and, therefore, are highly important, but the allowable varia- 
tion from them is also important, so the charts showing the 
variations should be studied until the information in the charts 
can be properly applied. 

Formulas for Regular Rib Fabrics and Explanations: Formulas 
for Regular Flat Fabrics and Explanations 

These are the means of practical application of the theory of 
knit fabrics — rather the principles of knit fabrics — so the 
student should study them by working out examples with the 
formulas which are designated the most important in the ex- 
planations. Of course the Tabulations for Regular Fabrics 
belong with the formulas and should have the attention which 
they deserve. The student should understand thoroughly that 
although the principles of the formulas are on a substantial 
basis the constants used are a matter of choice. For instance, 



Suggestions for a Course of Reading 7 

in his locality fabric which has courses to wales as 12 to 10 may 
be considered to represent best average practice. In such 
case the ambitious student may test his ability by working out 
a act of formulas for those conditions. 

The Relation of the Diameter of the Yarn to the Needle Spacing 
This is somewhat mathematical, but if found difficult the 
mathematics may be skipped. However, the results should be 
understood and considered. As a general rule, the machine 
which works the heaviest yarn in proportion to the needle 
spacing is technically the best machine. This indicates that it 
is desirable to find means of using heavy yarn, especially on 
those machines which are now restricted to comparatively 
light yarn. Of course, the practical problem involves retaining 
good needle velocity and a reasonable number of feeds, but any 
discovery which will throw hght on the subject is valuable. 

Width of Fabric from Different Machines 

This subject is much like the last. It may seem dry but it 
is useful. 

Range of Fabric from the Same Gauge or Cut 
This is an illustration of how much difference there may be 
in fabrics from the same number of needles per inch. Yet it has 
been customary to try to determine the cut from the fabric. It 
should be evident that the fabric rules given in this book pro- 
vide a more rational and accurate method for determining the 
needles per inch. 

Production of Circular Knitting Machines 
This gives the general considerations of the production 
question and deserves to be read thoroughly. 

Production — Methods of Calculating 

The student should take his pencil and paper and work 
through each method as it is given, then he should work each 
one through with the book closed, and finally he should work 
each one through with an entirely new set of conditions. Even 
then he will be fortunate if he remembers the methods suffi- 
ciently for application on the spot, since these methods are as 
easy to forget as they are important. A boiler maker who could 



8 The Science of Knitting 

not calculate the capacity of his boilers, or an engine maker who 
could not calculate the capacity of his engines, would be re- 
garded as an ignoramus; yet the knitter, as a rule, cannot cal- 
culate the capacity of his machines, although this is one of the 
simple problems in knitting. Therefore, the student of knitting 
should learn the subject, not only because he may require it, but 
because it helps to put his calling on the higher plane where it 
should be. 

Relative Production of Different Types of Knitting Machines 

This is a highly important question and one which tests the 
reader's knowledge of what he has already read. It frequently 
happens that a cotton yarn company desires to install machinery 
to convert the yarn into fabric. What machines should be in- 
stalled to convert the most pounds or to produce the most 
yards? The knitter should be able to answer questions like 
these. If he studies this topic, he will be able to do so. 

Weight per Square Yard Formula — Derivation 

This formula is to knitting what the first law of gravitation 
is to the heavenly bodies. Astronomers used to be puzzled by 
the difference in motion between a planet and a comet, and by 
lesser differences in the motions of any two planets. But the 
first law of gravitation, namely, that bodies attract each other 
directly as their masses and inversely as the square of their 
distance, solved the whole problem; so that a law expressible 
in sixteen words bound the immeasurable universe together. 
Similarly the weight per yard formula binds all knit fabric 
together, for it states the conditions which control every piece 
of knit fabric. This derivation is simple arithmetic and it is 
so important that every knitter should learn it and be able to 
derive it at any time. 

Determining the Weight per Square Yard by Weighing 

Although this topic is intended for the manufacturer or analyst 
who will do enough weighing to warrant the cost of a die for 
cutting the fabric, it is useful to the student as well. If a die is 
not readily procurable, the student may cut out rectangular 
pieces of cloth, using for a pattern a piece of cardboard, say four 
inches square. 



Suggestions for a Course of Reading 9 

Two-thread Knitting 

Twist in Flat Knit Fabric Made with Self-feeding Needles 

Twist in Rib Fabric 

Summary Regarding Twist of Knit Fabrics 

These are easy reading, but they should not be slighted be- 
cause they are easy. The student will find in them many 
principles which have much broader application than the titles 
indicate, and he should endeavor to understand those principles 
in order to extend their application himself. For instance, the 
subject of twist in knit fabrics and knitting yarn is as broad as 
its investigation has been narrow, so it offers a good field for 
study. 

Yarn Counts — General 

The knitter works with yam, so he is not thoroughly equipped 
for his occupation until he understands the methods of number- 
ing yarn. It is a sad reflection on our civilization that so much 
time has to be wasted in learning many different counts when 
a few would answer the purpose; but if the time consumed spurs 
the student to use his influence toward the adoption of two or 
three universal yarn counts, it will not be entirely lost. 

Yarn-count Definitions 

These should be memorized. Undoubtedly, some of the 
definitions will be forgotten in time, but if the student memo- 
rizes them when the subject is in hand, he is likely to retain a 
suflBciently clear idea of them to be of service in time of need. 



Counts Used for Dififerent Kinds of Yarns 

This old subject is treated briefly for the American knitter, 
since the usual treatise is either too voluminous or does not in- 
clude the local counts. The pitfalls of yarn numbering should 
be carefully learned, for it is frequently costly to specify the 
wrong number of yarn. Moreover, it is advisable to know 
something about the local yarn numbering when one goes to a 
new locality, since the knowledge dispels the to-be-expected sus- 
picion of provincialism. 



10 The Science of Knitting 

Single Equivalent of Two or More Yarns — Formula 

The equation for two yarns should be thoroughly learned, 
even if the demonstration is too difficult. Moreover, the equa- 
tion should be practiced until proficiency in its use is attained. 
When the knitter is asked what the equivalent of a ten and 
six yarn is and has to admit that he does not know and can- 
not find out without a table, his admission is a sad commen- 
tary on his knowledge. 

Explanation of Yarn-transformation Table — Yarn-transformation 

Table 

These should be mastered. Some may say that they have 
a parallel column transformation table with which they are 
familiar. That is all right for whoever does not use yarn every 
day, but the knitter should be able to transform between the 
counts which he uses without the aid of a table. He may be 
looking for a position some day, and the prospective employer 
may ask him a simple transformation question, just as a sea- 
man is asked to box the compass as a slight evidence of his 
knowledge. If he says that he does not know but must go home 
and look in a book to find out, he is likely to be advised to 
go home and stay there. Very many of the usual yarn trans- 
formations are solvable almost or entirely mentally, and it 
gives standing to a knitter to be able to answer such questions 
on the spot. It is not to be expected that all of the constants 
will be learned, but if a knitter uses cotton, worsted and mill- 
spun yarn, he should be able without looking at a book or a 
memorandum to make any transformation between the cotton 
count, worsted count, and whatever local count is used. 

Figure Designing with Pattern Wheels 

Although this is generally regarded as belonging more to loop- 
wheel knitting than to general knitting, still the principles are 
broad even if the application is somewhat restricted. More- 
over, the mental training obtained by mastering such problems 
is highly beneficial. The man who is content to have all of his 
information brought to him ready for use will become depend- 
ent just like the man who requires all of his food brought to 
him. But those who exercise either their minds or their muscles 
— and preferably both — for what they get are independent, 
as all rational beings should be. 



Suggestions for a Course of Reading 11 

Minimum Weight per Square Yard 
This is an illustration of the purely theoretical. Fabric of 
the kind discussed is never seen. Naturally, some think that 
time spent in discussing it is lost. But such people would be 
surprised if they would learn how much our present knowledge 
of common affairs has been increased by discussing the in- 
finitely great and the infinitely small. Yet neither will ever be 
reached here. However, from those unattainable boundaries it 
is possible to work back and derive much practical information. 
It is so with the minimum weight per square yard; it sets a 
limit which assists in determining the attainable weights. But 
better still it shows how reasoning can be applied to knitting 
for its advancement as well as to anything else. Moreover, the 
knitter should not leave such reasoning for the so-called theo- 
rists. The knitter has the same kind of a brain as the theorist 
and frequently a better opportunity to use it, and he should 
exercise the opportunity. 

Vertical Patterns j 

This topic is something like Figure Designing in that it is 
certainly beneficial as a study, even if the opportunity does not 
occur for its application. 

" Economics of Knitting 

Economical knitting is what every knitter is striving for, 
since, if he does not get pretty near to it, competition will drive 
him out of business. Therefore, it ought to be of interest and 
value to know definitely just what roads lead to economy in- 
stead of groping around in the dark for them. Economics of 
Knitting points out those roads. The subject may seem dry. 
So are the economics of almost every industry. But by such 
dry subjects is progress made. 

Theory of Knit Fabrics 

This is not intended for practical knitters since they have 
already learned it from the Elements of Knitting. It is for 
those who want to get quickly at the reason for the knitting 
system which this book proclaims. It is a line of departure 
for those who feel prompted to express agreement or disagree- 
ment. The author hopes that all such will carry out their 
promptings with as much fidelity as has been exercised in devel- 



12 The Science of Knitting 

oping the system itself, since only by such criticism can the truth 
be reached. The object of this book is to show the truth, and 
those who support its truths or correct its error j will be fur- 
thering that object. 

The Remainder of the Book 

This needs no introduction other than the index and table of 
contents. The knitter should remember, however, that although 
the tables are for him as well as for those who are not knitters, 
still he should not be dependent on the tables, since if he has 
followed these suggestions he already knows formulas enough 
to enable him to derive hundreds of tables. These tables are 
merely some of those rules worked out for cases which might 
arise, in order to save the time of working them out when the 
cases do arise. So the rule is the main thing. Moreover, the 
knitter can carry the rule in his head,'but not the table. There- 
fore, he should keep the rules in his head and be able to apply 
them whenever it is necessary. 

YARN DIAMETER 

It is the custom to use the yarn number in knitting cal- 
culations, which is right as far as it goes, since the number ex- 
presses the inverted weight per unit length of the yarn and is, 
therefore, useful, very much as the weight per foot of shafting is 
useful. But if a machinist were required to construct something 
with shafting and had to work ^by the weight per foot instead of 
the diameter, he would be sadly inconvenienced. Yet this is 
the condition under which the knitter has worked — a condition 
which is responsible for much confusion and waste. The knitting 
machine is insensible to the weight of yarn, but it is very sen- 
sitive to undersized or over-sized yarn. Of course, the weight 
has a relation to the diameter, but this relation is so affected by 
the composition, twist, and hygroscopicity of the yarn that it 
is not reliable for determining the diameter except when these 
and other disturbing conditions are alike. 

Although the number of the yarn is useful and therefore de- 
sirable for knitting purposes, the diameter or an equivalent is 
much more desirable, since the width of the fabric, the cut of 
the machine, the length of the stitch, and other important 
features are dependent on it. 



Yarn Diameter 



13 



It is generally considered that the actual or sensible diameter 
— the diameter which the machine experiences — is almost im- 
possible to determine. In weaving, calculations are made with 
diameters derived from the specific weight of the material, cotton, 
wool, etc., as the case may be, but these diameters are less 
than the sensible diameter. Moreover knitting — especially in 
America — has not yet reached the calculating stage, so what- 
ever diameters are used must not only be such as the. machine 
experiences but must be convenient of access and simple to 
handle. 




Method for the determination of the coils per half-inch of the yarn, from 
which the diameter of the yarn, the diameters per inch, and the yarn number 
may be calculated. 



A means of meeting all these requirements is illustrated 
herewith. Almost every one has a watch-chain bar. Make a 
very slight nick in the bar half an inch from the nearest side of 
the band. Wind the yarn in question around the bar out to 
the mark, say five slightly separated coils at a time, pressing 
each five coils toward the band, so that they come firmly to- 
gether, but are not compressed too tightly. Then one-half 
divided by the number of coils gives the diameter of the yarn. But 
it is not necessary to make the division since the number of 



14 The Science of Knitting 

coils is as reliable to work with as the diameter and is much 
more convenient. By this means, from what follows and with 
only a piece of yarn, say eight inches in length, the knitter may 
determine the cut to use, the stitches per foot, the number of 
the yarn and other useful information. Moreover, skill in coil- 
ing the yarn may be acquired with less practice than is required 
for the use of a reel and balance. The novice should not be 
discouraged if the yarn number obtained by this method does 
not exactly agree with the number obtained by reeling, for it 
has already been shown that the diameter does not always cor- 
respond with the number, so it must follow that the number 
does not always correspond with the diameter. Consequently 
failure to get the correct number by counting the coils is not 
necessarily proof that either the method or the application of 
it is faulty. * 

Of course there are with this method, as with every other, 
sources of error, opportunities for carelessness, etc. such as 
chancing on an exceptionally light or heavy piece of the yarn, 
or pressing the coils differently, or using a rough or sticky bar; 
but with ordinary caution this method affords the knitter an 
exceedingly simple guide which is far ahead of what has for- 
merly been available. 

In the following discussion the yarn diameter and the coils 
are obtained with a bar. The coils per one-half inch are gen- 
erally used since the coils per inch are too many to count readily 
and no advantage is gained by using them, except for more 
elaborate calculations than the knitter is likely to make. Ob- 
viously the number of coils per half inch is half the number of 
coils per inch. So in order to prevent confusion, the coils per 
half inch are so stated, or as " one-half coils per inch," whereas 
" coils " means coils per inch. 

ELEMENTS OF KNITTING 

Definition of Knitting. — Knitting is making fabric on more 
than one needle by interlooping a thread or several parallel 
threads. 

The Loop is the Element. — Since the fabric is made up of a 
succession of loops, the element of the fabric is the loop. 

Course. — Successive loops in any one thread form a course, 
except in warp knitting where the loops formed at one time form 
a course. 



Elements of Knitting 15 

[ Length of Course. — In circular knitting a course follows a 
continuous helical path in the tube of fabric from beginning to 
3nd, so its length is inconveniently great; consequently the 
length is taken as one complete circuit of the fabric, and suc- 
cessive circuits are regarded as separate courses. 

First Course. — The first course may be formed in any one of 
many ways, such as wrapping the yarn once around each needle 
in succession, or may be in a fabric previously knit. 

Formation of Loop. — In the latter case a needle is inserted 
through each one of the original loops and yarn is thereby drawn 
through the original loops to form the next course which is 
held on the needles until the operation is repeated, and so on. 

Needle Loop. — The yarn lies in the plane of the fabric in 
what is called a snake curve, and the loops which are drawn 
through the previously formed loops are called the needle loops 
because they rest on the needle. 

Sinker Loop. — But since the yarn is continuous there must 
be corresponding connecting loops of opposite curvature; these 
^re called sinker loops, because in the original knitting machine 
during the feeding of the yarn they rested against thin plates 
called sinkers. 

Wale. — A row of adjoining loops in different courses is called 
ja wale or rib. 

Stitch. — A stitch- is really the combination of loops from 
adjoining threads forming a fixed part of the fabric, and the 
duplication of which forms the whole fabric. 

But a stitch is frequently considered to be the length of yarn 
from any point to an adjoining corresponding point, e.g. from 
the middle of a sinker loop to the middle of the next sinker loop. 

Top and Bottom of Loop and Fabric. — The needle loop is 
considered to be the top of the stitch and the sinker loop the 
bottom. 

Correspondingly the bottom of the fabric is that which is 
knit first and the top is that which is knit last. 

Length and Width of Fabric. — The extent of the fabric 
along the courses is limited by the number of needles, but along 
the wales it is unlimited except by the supply of yarn, so the 
length of the fabric is taken as the length of a wale, and the 
width, as the length of a course, except in tubular fabrics in 
which half the length of a single course is taken — that is, the 
flattened width of the tube. 



16 



The Science of Knitting 



Suppositions. — For the discussion of the elementary prin- 
ciples of knitting, the yarn is considered round and flexible to 
bending but not to compression. The machine is considered to 
be ideal, i.e. perfect in its operation and without limitations as 




Width 
~ of Wale 
4 diameters 

Illustration 1. 
Face of plain flat fabric. A, A, needle loops, B, B, sinker loops. 



to length of stitch, size of needle, etc. The practical qualifica- 
tions are given subsequently. 

Illustrations of Knit Stitch. — Illustration 1 shows a face 
view and Illustration 2 shows a back view of three wales, 
marked 1, 2, 3, of plain flat (not ribbed) knitting. 



Elements of Knitting 



17 



Width of Wale and of Fabric. — A wale at its widest part is 
nade up of a loop bent over two threads side by side, and since 
:hese are all the same thread, the diameters are all the same, so. 
.he width of the wale is four diameters. 




Illustration 2. 
Back of plain flat fabric. 



But the wales touch at their widest portion so 
The entire width of the 

fabric = width of wale X number 

of wales 
= 4 dia. of yarn X number of 

wales 
= 4 dia. of yarn X number of 
needles. 



18 The Science of Knitting 

The half width or flattened 

width of the tube = 2 dia. of yarn X number of 

needles 
= 2 dia. of yarn X dia. of 

machine X 3.14 X cut 
= 6.28 dia. of yarn X dia. of 
machine X cut. 
From this it follows that the width of the fabric is dependent 
not only on the diameter of the machine but on the cut and on 
the diameter of the yarn. This is actually demonstrated in 
regard to the cut by some small mills which have only a few 
diameters of machines, but make a wide range of garment 
sizes by using cylinders and dials of different cuts in the same 
machine. It is evident also that if yarn of smaller diameter is 
used, the width of the fabric will be proportionally less. This 
may be counteracted by increasing the diameter of the machine 
with the same cut, as is well known, or by using a cylinder and 
a dial of correspondingly finer cut. 



Since dia. of yarn = Coils per i inch' 

Needles 

Width of flattened tube of fabric = ^^rr^ r-^ — t- 

Coils per ^ men 

i.e. The flattened width of the tube of plain fabric from a circular 
machine equals the number of needles divided by the number of coils 
of yarn per half inch. 

. _ 3.14 X dia. of machine X cut^ 
' Coils per \ inch 

i.e. The flattened width of the tube of plain fabric from a circular 
machine equals 3.14 multiplied by the diameter of the needle line 
multiplied by the cut and divided by the coils of yarn per half inch. 

Width of Course. — A visible course is narrower than the 
height of a stitch, since the loops overlap by approximately a 
diameter both at the top and at the bottom. 

Moreover, the width of the course is determined by the length 
of yarn in the stitch as well as by the diameter, instead of by 
the diameter alone as is the case with the wale. 

Courses and Wales per Inch. — Courses are generally com- 
pared by the number per inch, as are also the wales, but since 
the width of the fabric is proportional to the number of wales, 
the width is generally used instead of the wo^les per inch. 



Elements of Knitting 



19 



Stitches per Foot. — The length of yarn in the stitch is ex- 
bressed by the number of stitches per foot of yarn, since this is 
X convenient unit. It should be remembered, however, that the 
ength of the yarn in the stitch increases as the stitches per foot 
decrease — just as the wales per inch decrease when the width 
Df the wale increases. These are what are called inverse re- 
lations — that is, one goes up when the other goes down. There 
kre many such in knitting, and they must be kept in mind in 
Drder to comprehend the subject. 

Face and Back. — Each of the loops of the plain fabric is 
Irawn through another one toward what is considered the face 




Illustration 3. 
Rib fabric with wales spread apart. 



)f the fabric. This throws the tops and the bottoms of the loops 
m the back, as Illustration 2 shows, and makes the appear- 
mce of the back different from that of the front, or face. 

Rib Fabric. — Now consider the loops of every other wale to 
)e drawn through to the back instead of the front. Then Illus- 



20 The Science of Knitting 

tration 1 will appear like Illustration 3, except that wales 1 and 
3, coming together, will leave wale 2 entirely on the back. 
The face of the cloth will appear just the same as before, and the 
back will appear just like the face, since the tops and bottoms 
of the loops will be hidden between the front and back wales. 

Curling of Edges of Flat Fabric, — The objectionable curling 
of the edges of flat fabric is due to the accumulated straighten- 
ing out of the yarn in the stitches, which tendency is all in one 
direction in any one place — toward the face at the ends and 
toward the back at the sides — since the loops are all formed 
alike. But in rib fabric, where every alternate stitch in ai 
course is drawn in the reverse direction, the tendency to 
straighten does not accumulate but counterbalances, therefore 
the fabric does not curl at the edges. 

Raveling Flat and Rib Fabric. — It will also be noticed that 
the flat fabric may be raveled from either end, so that it is 
difficult to tell the top from the bottom when it is not on the 
machine; whereas the rib fabric cannot be raveled at the end 
which came off the needles first — the lower end, Illustration 
3 — because the end thread is wound around the next thread 
instead of being merely looped through it. 

Comparative Width of Flat and Rib Fabric. — If the same 
number of needles is used, the rib fabric will be half as wide as 
the plain fabric, since half of the wales lie on the back. The 
courses will not be changed. 

Elasticity of Flat and Rib Fabric. — It is evident from the 
preceding that rib knitting is substantially flat knitting with 
every other wale facing inward, and since the wales on the in- 
side overlap those on the outside, rib fabric is only half as wide 
as flat fabric made of the same yarn and with the same total number 
of needles. In other words, rib fabric of the same width as flat 
fabric made of the same yarn has twice as many wales to stretch ; 
consequently it .has twice the elasticity from this fact alone. 
Moreover, when rib fabric is stretched, the front and back 
wales tend to get into line between each other, and so supply 
still more elasticity than has just been mentioned. 

Double Sets of Needles. — In rib machinery the needles are 
divided into two sets; one for knitting the face and the other 
for knitting the back. These sets are distinguished by various 
names, but in circular latch-needle machinery the needles which 
knit the back are generally called dial needles, and those which 



Elements of Knitting 



21 



knit the face are generally called cylinder needles. Since for 
plain rib fabric the same number of needles is used in each set, 
and since the cylinder needles generally knit the face of the 
cloth, the number of cylinder needles is used to designate the 
fineness of the fabric or the machine, and it is understood that 
the same number of dial needles is also used. 

Stitches per Foot. — The above designation makes the length 
bf a rib stitch include both a cylinder and a dial stitch, so that 
:thirty-two stitches per foot of yarn means thirty-two cylinder 
kt itches and thirty-two dial stitches, or what would be sixty-four 
|stitches in plain flat fabric. 

Illustration 4 shows a front view and an edge view of a tight 
■ib stitch. The following is evident: 



TIGHT RIB STITCH 
EDGE VIEW 




Height 
Smch 



Illustration 4. 



Dimensions of Rib Stitch. — The width of the wale is four 
diameters, as has already been shown. 

The thickness of the fabric is four diameters. 

The height of the stitch is four diameters. 

Stitches of Different Fabrics of the Same Characteristics are 
Proportional to the Diameter of the Yarn. — From the above it 
follows that the stitch is proportional to the diameter of the yarn, 
for if the diameter is doubled, every dimension of the stitch will 



22 The Science of Knitting 

be doubled, including the length of yarn in the stitch. In other 
words, corresponding stitches are proportional to the diameter of 
the yarn. The student should fix this thoroughly in his mind. 
A good way of so doing is to look at Illustration 4 through a 
reading glass held at different distances from the illustration. 
The size of the stitches will increase and decrease just as the 
diameter of the yarn does. Note that these different sized 
stitches seen through the glass are corresponding stitches — 
that is, the tightest for any given diameter of yarn. But the 
rule holds for any other corresponding stitches regardless of their 
length. 

Fabrics of Different Characteristics have Disproportionate 
Stitches. — However, for stitches which do not correspond, 
whereas the width and thickness must he proportional to the diameter 
of the yarn, the length of yarn in the stitch and consequently the 
height of the stitch are not proportional. 

If the stitches are not proportional, the fabrics are different. 
So the converse of the rule is true; that is, in dissimilar fabrics 
the lengths of yarn in the stitches are not proportional to the di- 
ameters of the yarn. 

Relation of Yarn Diameter and Needle Spacing. — Suitable 
yarn is that which the machine most economically converts into 
the most desirable fabric. The diameter of the yarn is proportional 
to the spacing of the needles. A convenient proof of this is found 
in the fact that ordinarily the width of the fabric is proportional 
to the width or diameter of the machine. From this it follows 
that when the number of needles is increased (i.e. when the cut 
is made finer) the width of the wales must be proportionally 
decreased or else the fabric would be made wider. 

Proofs of Relation of Yarn Diameter and Needle Spacing. — 
The diameter of the yarn is proportional to the width of the 
vrale. Consequently, the diameter of the yarn is reduced in 
proportion to the spacing of the needles. This important re- 
lation of the diameter of the yarn to the needle spacing was 
made - public by Gustav Willkomm, who observed it from a 
comparison of the needle spacing of hosiery frames and the yarn 
diameter; it was much later independently observed from a 
comparison of the gauge and corresponding yarn diameter of 
American and Canadian practice; and was soon after announced 
to be a general relation dictated by the characteristics of knit 
fabrics and conformed to by the machine manufacturers or users. 



l^Elements of Knitting 23 

Relation of Yam Diameter and Needle Spacing is Elastic. — 

Since all practical machines will knit successfully yarn differ- 
ing in diameter within a wide range, there is naturally room for 
a difference of opinion regarding the proportion of yarn diameter 
to needle spacing, but ivhatever proportion is selected for any one 
kind and cut of machine is equally suitable on all the other cuts. 
The proportions used here are from quite extensive practice and 
are useful, but should not be taken as final. Indeed, from the 
principles previously explained and from the application of 
them, explained hereafter, the knitter may derive his own pro- 
portions. 

Formulas of Yarn and Cut Relation. — For instance, we have 
the rule that for corresponding fabrics 

Dia. yarn 



Needle spacing 
and remembering that 



= a constant, , , , . (1) 



. The cut = „ ,, ^ r- , . . . (2) 

Needle spacmg > 

we have 

Needle spacing = ^^^ . ...... (3) 

Substituting in (l)r the value of needle spacing in (3) we have 
Dia. yarn X Cut = a constant (4) 

That is, as the diameter of the yarn increases, the cut de- 
creases and vice versa. To use this rule with the coils instead 

of the diameter, substitute ^ ., for diameter of yarn which 

gives .R-rr- = a constant. Similarly, j=^-^, ^-^ — r- = a constant. 

Coils -^ Coils per ^ inch 

Suppose the knitter is running satisfactorily 12 cut machines 
and the yarn shows 51 coils in half an inch. Then for his con- 
ditions 

Constant = Cut =. 1? = _i_ . 

Coils per | inch 51 4.25 

Consequently, his rule for such conditions is 
Cut = 27oc X coils per ^ inch. 



24 The Science of Knitting 

If he runs heavier or lighter yarn, the constants for such con- 
ditions may be derived in the same manner. The rule is ap- 
plicable to all knitting machinery, but the constant is different 
for different types of machine because differences in structure 
limit the size of the yarn to be used. Spring-needle machines 
with jack sinkers, such as the Cotton and the Fouquet types, can 
use heavy yarn and, consequently, a very wide range of yarn. 
Spring-needle fixed-blade loop-wheel machines are restricted 
to light yarn. Circular latch-needle machines have a nar- 
rower range than loop-wheel machines, and the use of two 
sets of needles generally restricts the range still more. Con- 
stants for several types of machines are given elsewhere. 

Relation of Yarn Number and Diameter, and Machine Cut 

The cotton number of yarn is the number of yards in one 
pound divided by 840. Or7Tt is the number of 840 yard hanks 
in a pound. Hank is the name given to a fixed length of yarn. 
The hank of actual yarn is generally coiled and twisted, since 
it is too long to handle otherwise. Those who are familiar with 
yarn numbering have no trouble in realizing that the yarn number 
is 1 -f- the weight of a hank; since if each hank weighed half a 
pound, there would be two hanks to the pound, and the yarn 
would be number two, which is the same as dividing 1 by |, the 
weight of the hank. However, those who are not familiar with 
yarn numbering sometimes have difficulty in grasping the hank 
idea, and even those who are familiar with the subject some- 
times become confused when they try to figure out the relation 
of the diameter to the number. The following analogy may make 
the matter clearer. Suppose that instead of soft fuzzy twisted 
material, yarn is hard and smooth and round like a lead pencil, 
but still continuous in length. Then suppose that the yarn num- 
ber is the number of one-inch pieces in a pound, since it is easier 
to imagine a one-inch piece than an 840-yard piece. If one inch of 
a certain piece weighed one-tenth of a pound, then it would take 
ten pieces to weigh a pound, so that yarn would be number ten. 
The number ten could also be obtained by dividing 1 by the 
weight of one inch, the standard length. Consequently, 

Weight of / ^ -■-■■..■■_■■ . 



Elements of Knitting 25 

In other words, the number equals one divided by the weight of 
a piece one inch long. Therefore, the diameter is the only di- 
mension which can be changed, since the length is fixed, namely 
1 inch. But the weight is proportional to the square of the 
diameter. That is to say, if the diameter is doubled, the weight 
is made four times as much; but two multiplied by two equals 
four, so the proportional weight after doubling the diameter 
may be obtamed by multiplying the diameter by itself, i.e. by 
squaring it. But when the diameter increases, the weight does 
the same, consequently, the number decreases. Therefore a 
thick piece of yarn has a smaller number than a thin piece. 
This brings the illustration to the desired point, which is that 
tin: yarn numbers are inversely proportional to the squares of the 
yarn diameten^s. Inversely means inverted, or upside down. Con- 
sequently, to get the relative numbers of yarn square their 
diameters and turn the squares upside down, that is, for each 
yam divide one by the diameter squared. These squared diam- 
eters turned upside down will be to each other as the yarn 
numbers. This holds just as true of the pieces of actual ^yarn 
as it does of the imaginary pieces of smooth round wood, for 
it makes no difference whether the diameter can be measured 
readily, or whether the standard length is long or short, the yarn 
numbers are inversely proportional to the squares of the yarn 
diameters. Expresse'd in a formula this is 

Constant 

No. = ^^n;^- 

Transforming, 

^. , Constant .(.>. 

Dia.2 = ^r^ (5) 

No. 

But from equation (4) 

Dia. X Cut = Constant, 

^. , Constant ,n\ 

Constant Constant 
(6) -(5) No. = Cut^ ' 



Inverting 



Cut2 

No. = 



Constant 

Note that the constants are not changed since their actual 
values are not yet required. 



26 



The Science of Knitting 



In other words, the number of the yarn is proportional to the 
square of the cut. This deduction was originally made by 
Gustav Willkomm. It follows naturally from his observation 
that the diameter of the yarn is proportional to the needle j 
spacing. i 

Foundation Principles. — It has been shown from considera- 
tion of the individual rib stitch that stitches — and consequently 
fabrics — of the same characteristics are in every respect pro- 
portional to the diameter of the yarn from which they are formed 
and conversely that when the proportion of the height of the 
stitch to the diameter of the yarn is changed, the characteristics 
of the stitch and consequently of the fabric are changed. Since 
these are the foundation principles of knit fabrics, they should 
be thoroughly understood. The dependence of these basic prin- 
ciples on the diameter of the yam makes the diameter of the 
yarn the foundation fact in knitting. There are other facts 
considered elsewhere, but the diameter leads in importance. 

Changing the Characteristics of the Fabric. — To return to the 
foundation principles of the fabric it will be noticed that there are 
as a rule with any one kind of yarn only two factors which may be 
changed, that is, the diameter of the yarn and the length of yarn in the 
stitch, each of which influences the height of the loop and con- 
sequently the number of courses per inch; also that the width 
of the wale and the thickness of the fabric are proportional to the 
diameter of the yarn and independent of the length of the stitch 
except for extremes which are considered elsewhere. 

Three General Cases. — For this discussion the following 
combinations are considered : 

1. Stitches per foot of yarn constant, yarn diameter varied. 

2. Stitches per foot of yarn varied, yarn diameter constant. 

3. Stitches per foot of yarn and yarn diameter varied so that 
the stitches per foot multiplied by the yarn diameter equals a 
constant — i.e., the stitches per foot increase just as the diameter 
decreases. 

What Determines Good Fabric. — Nos. 1 and 2 are readily 
understood. No. 3 is the condition for fabrics of different fine- 
ness but of the same characteristics. In other words, if a lot of 
machines from the coarsest to the finest were started in a com- 
munity of practical knitters and the fabrics were compared after 
the machines were in commercial operation, it would be found 
that the product of the stitches per foot of yarn multiplied by the 



Elements of Knitting 27 

yarn diameter would be one and the same constant for all of the 
fabrics, of com'se with slight variations. The reasons for this 
are that in any one community there is an idea of what char- 
acteristics are required for good fabric, whether coarse or fine, 
so the yarn and stitch would be so adjusted as to give these 
characteristics on the different cut machines, with the result 
that the product of the stitches per foot of yarn and the diameter 
of the yarn would be a certain constant, for this is the condition 
for fabrics of different fineness but of the same characteristics. 
Consequently, the third combination is the most important one, 
for it represents average knitting conditions, whereas combina- 
tions 1 and 2, which range from the extreme of impracticability 
[Of operation to that of instability of fabric, represent abnormal 
[conditions generally and average conditions only between the 
limits of the range. However, their consideration is necessary 
in order to understand the subject. 

Stitches per Foot Constant and Yam Diameter Varied. {The 
'first case.) — It is found by experiment that when the stitch is kept 
constant and the diameter of the yarn is varied, the courses^ and 
iwales per unit of length change so that their product is a con- 
stant quantity. For instance, suppose that at a certain stitch 
and with a certain yarn the wales and courses are each 10 per 
inch. Then the product of the wales and courses is 100. If now 
the size of the yarn fs either increased or diminished, the prod- 
uct of the courses and wales will still remain 100. But it has 
already been shown that the width of the wale changes in pro- 
portion to the diameter of the yarn, from which it is possible to 
determine the change in the wales, after which the change in the 
courses may be determined by dividing the number of wales per 
inch into the constant product of the wales and the courses. 
Suppose that the yarn is increased in diameter 10 per cent. 
Then the width of the wale will also be increased 10 per cent. 

Relation of Wales and Courses. — Consequently, the number 
of wales per inch after the change will be 10 divided by 1.1, which 
is 9.09. Now divide 100, the constant product, by 9.09, the new 
Inumber of wales, which gives 11, the new number of courses. 
JThis relation may be represented graphically as in Illustration 5, 
I which shows a piece of cross-section paper with courses laid off 
on the left scale upward from the zero at the lower left comer, 
and wales laid off at the bottom from the same starting point 
toward the right. A horizontal line from the 10-course mark 



28 



The Science of Knitting 



meets a vertical line from the 10-wale mark, making a square 
in the lower left corner of the paper, and a curve passes through 
the upper right corner of the square. This curve contains the 
intersections of all of the hues whose product is 100. The points 
in it are found by assuming different numbers of wales and divid- 
ing them into 100 to get the corresponding courses. After the 



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1 




































































L 





















10 



11 



12 



13 U 



Illustration 5. 

All rectangles with one corner at zero and the diagonally opposite corner in 
the curve contain the same number of stitches. This is the case with knit 
fabric when only the size of the j'arn is changed. That is to say, for fabris 
from any machine, when only the yarn size is changed, the number of 
stitches per unit of area remains constant. In other words, changing only 
the yarn size makes no change in the number of stitches per square inch. 



curve is obtained, when the number of courses (or wales) is 
known, the corresponding number of wales (or courses) is readily- 
found by following the known number out to the curve and then j 
reading the desired number from the other scale For instance, . 
it has just been determined that after an increase in the diam- 
eter of the yarn of 10 per cent the number of wales per inch has 



Elements of Knitting 29 

changed from 10 to 9.09. Start from 9.09 wales and follow the 
dotted line out to the curve and then to the left to the course 
scale which it intersects at 11, the corresponding number of 
courses. 

Product of Wales and Courses Dependent on Stitches per 
Foot of Yam. — It should be borne in mind that this curve holds 
only for one set of conditions of not only stitch but kind of yarn 
and machine. Change in any of these factors moves the curve 
toward or from the origin (the zero), but does not alter its form. 
For instance, if the stitch is made tighter — that is, if the number 
of stitches per foot is increased — then the curve will be moved 
farther to the right and upward, but it wall be obtainable in the 
same way, namely, by dividing the constant product of wales 
and courses by the number of wales, which number is obtainable 
from the diameter of the yarn, and then marking the intersections 
of the corresponding wales and courses. The constant product 
is so far best obtained by experiment with the machine and the 
kind of yarn in question. 

Diameter of Yam and Stitches per Foot of Yam Determine 
Characteristics of Fabric for any one Kind of Yam. — It should 
be explained here that theoretically the machine has nothing to 
do wuth these considerations, but it has become so common to 
consider the dimensions of the fabric, i.e., wales, courses, etc., 
dependent on the machine, that confusion is likely to result from, 
a sudden departure from that idea. A little reflection wull show 
at once how erroneous the idea is. Hand knitting preceded 
machine knitting, and with hand needles there was not — nor is 
to-day — any such thing as needle spacing, consequently, there is 
no such thing as cut or gauge, and yet a big variety of yarn 
numbers and lengths of stitch were and are usable with hand 
knitting. This was evidently forgotten when machine knitting 
became common; and from the fact that a certain degree of fine- 
ness of fabric came from a certain degree of fineness of machine, 
the notion became popular that the cut of the machine deter- 
mined the fineness of the fabric. This notion really has its 
foundation in the limitations of the machine rather than in its 
adaptation to any particular work. It is possible to conceive of 
an infinitely fine, but infinitely strong, needle drawing a very long 
loop in a very large roving, which roving would determine the 
width of the loop entirely independent of the needle. However, 
in practice there are no infinitely strong needles, so we do not 



30 



The Science of Knitting 



meet such ideal machines. Consequently the diameter of the 
yarn has to be proportional to the needle spacing, from which has 
come the mistaken conclusion that the spacing of the needles 
determines the fineness of the fabric, whereas it is really deter- t 
mined by the diameter of the yarn. 



1 s 




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s 














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s 










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s 








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.s 








































































































~ 


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1 


Ya 


rds 













































1 1 




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1 










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.1 




.2 




.3 




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Illustration 6. 
All rectangles with one corner at zero and the diagonally opposite corner in 
the curve have the same area. These rectangles represent the changes 
which take place in the fabric for changes in the diameter of the yarn, 
but no change in the number of needles, number of knitted courses, and 
number of stitches per foot of yarn. In other words, on a certain number 
of needles with a fi^ed length of loop, knit a certain number of courses 
with different sized yarn and every resulting piece of fabric will just fit under 
a curve of this character. 



Relation of Width and Height of a given Piece of Fabric. — 

The relation of the wales and courses for stitches constant and 
yarn variable was shown on page 28. The relation of the width 
and height of a given piece of knit fabric for the same conditions 
may be similarly shown. Suppose that a piece of fabric is knit so 



Elements of Knitting 31 

;hat it is just one yard square. Moreover, suppose that the only 
ihange to be made is in the diameter of the yarn. Illustration 6 
ihows a chart similar to Illustration 5, except laid off on both 
5cales in yards and tenths of yards. The square enclosed by the 
jcale lines and the two lines drawn from 1 to the curve represents 
ihe square yard of cloth just mentioned. The curve is so drawn 
:hat it will contain the upper right corner of all rectangles whose 
Area is one. Now make another piece of cloth the same as before, 
3ut with yarn 10 per cent larger in diameter. Since all conditions 
jxcept the size of the yarn are the same, there will be the former 
iotal number of wales and courses. It is known that t.he wales 
A^ill be wider in proportion to the increased diameter of the yarn, 
30 this piece of fabric will be 1.1 yards in width. The height 
baay be obtained by working through the wales and courses. The 

lew number of wales per inch will be in the proportion of — = 

).909. Consequently, the new number of courses per inch will 

3e in the proportion of ■ = 1.10. But since the number of 

u.yoy ) 

jourses is not changed, the height of the fabric will be 1 yard X 

~ = 0.909. The product of the width, 1.10, and the height, 

).909, is 1, consequently the piece of fabric will still contain one 
;quare yard, so that when it is drawn on the chart, its upper right 
;omer will be in the curve as shown by the dotted lines. Com- 
paring the wale and course chart, 5, with the square yard chart, 
), the observer sees that one is the reverse of the other, but that 
n each case the product of the dimensions is a constant. 

Production in Square Yards. — From the above it follows that 
vhen the stitch is constant and the yarn is variable, the product 
Df the width and the height of a piece of fabric (with the same 
lumber of stitches) is constant. Therefore, the production in 
iquare yards of a knitting machine with stitches constant is inde- 
oendent of the yarn, for what is gained in width by the use of 
arger yarn is lost in length by the drawing together of the 
:;ourses. Moreover, a square yard contains a constant length of yarn. 

Length of Yam in a Square Yard of Fabric. — From the above, 
and since the (cotton) number of yarn is inversely proportional to 
the weight of a constant length, the weight per square yard goes 
jp as the number of the yarn goes down, i.e., the product of the 
sveight per square yard and the number of the yarn is a constant. 



32 The Science of Knitting 

Proportioning "Weight per Square Yard and per Dozen Gar- 
ments. — When it is desired to change the weight of piece fabric 
per yard, or goods per dozen, the change of yarn may be calcu- 
lated by the simple rule 

Present weight X present yarn -h desired weight = desired yarn. 

However, with garments care must be exercised to cut the same 
number of yards, which means that if the size of the yarn ia 
increased, the sizes must be cut from smaller diameters of ma- 
chine. It must be remembered, also, that the characteristics of 
the fabric will be changed, since the same characteristics are 
obtained only when the length of yarn in the stitch is proportional 
to the diameter of the yarn, which is the same as to say that the 
product of the diameter of the yarn and the stitches per foot of 
yarn is a constant. 

Diameter of Yarn Constant, Stitches per Foot of Yarn Varied. 
— The Second Case. Experiments show that the courses vary in 
some proportion to the stitches per foot, that is to say, as the 
stitches per foot are increased the courses increase. The wales, 
of course, remain constant. Therefore, the weight per yard 
is increased, but not in the proportion in which the courses are 
increased, because the increase in the stitches per foot lessens the 
length of yarn in a course. Consequently the increase in weight 
per yard is a slow differential between the gain in weight due to 
increased courses and the loss due to decreased length of yarn in 
a course. No simple expression for this change in weight has yet 
been found. 

Regular Fabrics. — The Third Case, that in which the product 
of the stitches per foot and the diameter of the yarn is constant, 
is illustrated, regarding the wales, courses and stitches by 
Illustration 7, with wales on the left scale and courses on the 
bottom scale. Several curves representing the constant prod- 
ucts of wales and courses for different stitches are shown. The 
45-degree diagonal drawn through the origin upward to the right 
is the dividing line for wales equal to courses. It will be noticed 
that as the wales increase the courses increase equally, but the 
stitches per foot must increase also. This fabric is looser than 
is generally considered desirable in America, where the courses 
and wales are in the proportion of about 12.5 to 10, which pro- 
portion is used in this book. The line representing it is just 
below the diagonal. However, the selection of any proportion 



Elements of Knitting 



33 



s largely a matter of choice. The main fact is that for corre- 
ponding fabrics the stitch must be proportional throughout, 
rhis simple condition makes possible the use of a remarkable 
lumber of simple equations which are useful for showing not only 


"1 ( 1" 1 2 




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6 « I 8 » lull 12 IJH 15 10 tilt) 19 2U^1'J::;:j 24 '.'^20 27 28 ^'JW;11;>;j;M 44 »j;i6 37 48 ;<'J 40 414^43 41 4^46 47 «• 

Courses 



Illustration 7. 
vhart. showing the relation of wales, courses, and stitches in fabrics of the 

same characteristics, 
rhe wales per inch increase as the diameter of the yarn decreases, 
rhe courses per inch are proportional to the wales per inch, 
rhe stitches per foot of yarn are proportional to the wales per inch. 



ihe proportionate results of a change, but also the concrete re- 
mits, so that knitting moves from a rule-of-thumb stage — rather 
a. no-rule stage — to one of comparative certainty. Elsewhere are 
yiven fairly complete sets of rules showing the relations of all of 
the ordinary dimensions used in knitting. They are based on the 



34 The Science of Knitting 

principles just explained and on constants derived from measure- 
ment of some 200 samples of ribbed fabric made of carded mule- 
spun hosiery yarn. Among the important rib-fabric relations 
may be noted here the following, although the reader is referred 
to page 36 which gives the conditions on which the relations are 
based, and to pages 38 and 39 which give enough relations for 
ordinary requirements. 

Some Relations of Regular Rib Fabrics. — 

Cut of machine = ^ -_ t^. j 

8.57 Dia. oi yarn 

Stitches per foot of yam = ^ ^ . t^. ? • 

2.14 Dia. of yarn 

Courses per inch = „ , „ . j . 

3.2 Dia- OI yarn 

Wt. per square yard = 38 Dia. of yarn. 

Production, pounds per feed per 10 hours = 57,772 (Dia. of yarn.)^. 

Production, square yards per feed, per 10 hours = 1520 Dia. 

of yarn. 

PRACTICAL VARIATIONS FROM KNITTING RULES 

It is unnecessary to tell knitters that knitting is not an exact 
science. They know this so well that they have become ex- 
tremists on the subject, so that they are inclined to discredit all 
rules. Consequently, before a rule receives practical considera- 
tion it is necessary for the sponsor to proclaim that he knows 
there are exceptions to it in spite of the adage that there are 
exceptions to all rules. So the practical variations which follow 
are mentioned with the double object of meeting the above 
necessity and of pointing out where exceptions may be most 
expected . 

The Shape of Yam. — Yarn is supposed to be round; but it 
may be almost any other shape, except angular or absolutely 
flat. Soft yarn is frequently preferable for knitting, and the 
softness is usually obtained by slack twist; so that instead of a 
compact cylindrical mass like that of six-cord thread, the yarn 
consists of a bundle of fibers slackly twisted together and easily 
susceptible to pressure distortions. However, the general form 
is cylindrical, and the. fabric formed from it corresponds closely 
to what is expected from cylindrical elements, so it is permissible 
to consider the yarn cylindrical, if allowances are made for dis- 
tortion from the cylindrical form. This distortion is practically 



Practical Variations from Knitting Rules 35 

proportional for similar conditions. For instance, suppose that 
owing to compression the width of a fabric is 10 per cent less 
than that calculated on the assumption that the thread is 
cylindrical. Then that proportion, 10 per cent less, is appli- 
cable to fabrics on other cuts made of the same kind of yarn 
with a stitch proportional to the diameter of the yarn. In 
I other words, results based on cylindrical yarn are valuable as 
' proportions, even when distortion of the yarn prevents use of 
the absolute values, provided the distortion is caused by simi- 
lar conditions. 

Resilience or Resistance to Bending. — The structure of the 
knit stitch depends on resistance to bending, the force of which 
keeps the wales together in normal fabrics. Evidently this 
I for(« depends on the kind and condition of the fiber, the twist 
, of the yarn and other factors. Also, it depends on the curva- 
I ture to which the yarn is subjected. An abrupt curve is re- 
sisted more than an easy one. The normal knitting curve has 
a radius of approximately 1^ diameters of yarn. If the loop is 
so long that this radius is much increased, there will nbt be 
I enough force to hold the loops closed, so that the width will 
increase rapidly, the elasticity will decrease and the fabric 
wiU become shapeless. At the other extreme of stitch, that 
is very tight, the curvature is shortened by lengthwise ten- 
' sion on the yarn which hugs the loops together, and nar- 
rows the fabric so that the loops lose theii' natural easy 
curves. The rules are not intended to apply to such fab- 
rics, since they are so " sleazy " on the one hand and so 
" boardy " on the other that they comprise an insignificant 
part of knitting. 

Most yarn used in knitting is susceptible of a sufficiently 
short bend to bring the wales together, but it can be realized 
that spring wire would not take such a bend, and that yarn of 
a wiry nature would take a bend between that of wire and that 
of soft cotton yarn. Accordingly, it is to be expected that 
! fabrics made from wiry yarn will be wider than those made from 
the same size of soft cotton yarn. Sizing, dyeing, bleaching — 
in short, treatment of almost any kind — alters the bending 
property of yarn, so that allowance should be made therefor, 
when acciu-acy is required. 

Stitch Distortion. — The popular impression is that the 
machine forms the stitch somewhat as a die forms a coin. But, 



36 The Science of Knitting 

ideally, the machine should draw through each other, loops of a 
proper length depending on the diameter of the yarn, and leave 
those loops to take the form dictated by their elasticity In 
actual practice there exists a wide range of stitches, from the j 
ideal to those pulled far out of shape. This distortion may be 
caused by excessive take-up tension, by too tight a stitch for 
the yarn and cut, by improper clearing of the loops, etc. Some of 
these distortions are quite permanent, such as the widening of 
the fabric by a spread dial stitch; whereas others are not, such 
as the narrowing due to take-up tension, which narrowing dis- 
appears more or less quickly, according to the treatment to 
which the fabric is subjected after knitting. 

There are other causes which make the actual results differ 
from the rules and for which allowance must be made when 
unusual accuracy is required. But knitting is no exception in 
this regard. Excepting mathematics, no science is exact, and 
knitting occupies an intermediate ground among the sciences 
(or scientific arts), since it is not so exact as some but more 
exact than others. Moreover, it will improve in exactness 
since the relations of cause and effect of these disturbing factors 
may be determined just as the general principles of knitting 
have been determined, so that rules may be made for the proper 
allowance under given conditions. I 

EXPLANATION OF FORMULAS FOR REGULAR RIB FABRICS 

These formulas are based on the following relations : 

Yarn number = • 

6 

Stitches per foot of yarn = 4 Cut. 

Yarn diameter 



1 



21 VNo. 

Courses -r- Wales = 1.25. 

Tensile strength of thread = 6000 (diameter) .2 

Diametral revolutions per minute = 700 (35 r. p.m. of a 20-inch 

cyl). 

This table is meant for the practical knitter, so the explana- 
tion is addressed especially to him. 



Explanation of Formulas for Regular Rib Fabrics 37 

The extreme left-hand column, No. 1, gives details of rib 
fabric about which the knitter should have definite knowledge. 
The other columns contain simple equations which give that 
knowledge expressed in as many different ways as the knitter 
may need, and many more than are ordinarily necessary. There- 
fore, it is essential that he should know which are the most im- 

f portant. A brief review of some of them will help him to decide. 

( Consider first the column headed ^ Coils (No. 2) which means 
the number of close coils of yarn per half inch, such as it is 

> recommended to practice getting by coiling the yarn on a watch- 
chain bar. The importance of learning this simple method of 
determining the size of yarn should be understood. If a geolo- 
gist is given a little piece of rock he is supposed to be able to 
tell what it is and what can be done with it without asking a lot 
of questions about it. But if the knitter is given a piece of 
yarn, he has to ask what number it is, or ask for a larger piece 
and a yard stick (or reel) and scales before he can do anything 

; but guess about it, and even after he does know the number, he 

I is more learned than . the average knitter if he can tell ,what 
fabric knit from it will look like, how much it will weigh per 
yard, how many pounds and square yards can be produced per 
day, etc. This |-Coil column puts all this information right 

I into his hands, provided he puts the formulas into practice, 
for it takes practice^ to use formulas accurately, just as it does 
to shoot on the wing accurately. The knitter who does not 
use his formulas before he needs them will not make a better 
showing than the hunter who has not yet fired ofT his gun. It 
is hoped that every knitter who is interested will get a note 
book, put in it the |-Coil column (No. 2) and the No. column 
(No. 5) and put them to the test by coiling a piece of the 
yarn he is knitting, working out the results by the formulas and 
then comparing the theoretical results with the actual results. 
Only in this way can he learn one of the most important things 
about a practical formula, that is, the allowance to make in 
using it. One or two trials are not sufficient. Many are 
needed, but whoever makes them will be well repaid, for he can 
thereby get in a few days a fund of extremely useful knowledge 
much of which has heretofore been unavailable, and the balance 
of which has been obtainable only by years of experience. 

The following explanations may be of use. They are given 
in order, starting at the head of the f-Coil colunm (No. 2). 
The first two equations are self evident. 



38 



The Science of Knitting 



FORMULAS FOR 



1 

h Coils 
Coils 

Dia. 

No. 

Cut 

Stitches 

per foot of 

yarn 

Wales per 
in. 

Courses 
per in. 

Wt. per 
sq. yd. 

§1 Lbs. 

Its Sq. 
^M Yds. 

Tensile 

strength 

along 

wales, 

pounds 

per inch 

width, T 

Tensile 
strength 

along 
courses, 

pounds 
per inch 
width, t 


2 
§ Coils 


3 
Coils 


4 

Dia. 


5 
No, 


6 
Cut 


7 

Stitches 

per ft. of 

yarn 


h Coils 


Coils 
2 


1 
2 Dia. 


10.5 VNo. 


4.2865 Cut 


1.0716 S. 


2x1 Coils 


Coils 


1 
Dia. 


21 v^No. 


8.573 Cut 


2.1433 S. 


1 


1 
Coils 


Dia. 


1 


1 


1 


2x1 Coils 


21 ^No. 


8.573 Cut 


2.1433 S. 


(h Coils)2 

110.25 


Coils2 
441 


1 
441 Dia.2 


No. 


Cut2 
6 


Stitches^ 
96 


^ Coils 

4.2865 


Coils 
8.573 


1 


2.4495 v^No. 


Cut 


Stitches 
4 


8.573Dia. 


i Coils 
1.0716 

h Coils 
2 


Coils 
2.1431 


1 


9.798 VNo. 


4 Cut 


Stitches 


2.14325 Dia 


Coils 
4 


1 
4 Dia. 


5.25 VNo. 


2.1431Cut 


Stitches 
1.866 


§ Coils 
1.6 


Coils 
3.2 


1 


6.5625 V No. 


2.679 Cut 


Stitches 
1.4932 


3.2 Dia. 


18.987 
i Coils 


37.98 
Coils 


37.98 Dia. 


1.808 

VNo. 


4.43 
Cut 


17.72 
Stitches 


14,443 


57,772 
Coils2 


57,772 Dia.2 


131 
No. 


786 
Cut2 


12,576 
Stitches2 


(i Coils)2 


760.1 
h Coils 


1520.2 
Coils 


1520.2 Dia. 


72.39 

VNo. 


177.31 
Cut 


709.241 
Stitches 


3000 
k Coils 


6000 
-Coils 


6000 Dia. 


285.7 


699.8 
Cut 


2799 
Stitches 


937.5 
i Coils 


1875 
Coils 


1875 Dia. 


89.29 

Vno. 
• 


218.7 
Cut 


874.7 
Stitches 



The quantities at the left of the table are 



Explanation of Formulas for Regular Rib Fabrics 39 
EGULAR RIB FABRICS 



8 


9 

Courses 
per inch 


10 
Wt. per yd. 


11 12 

Production, 1 feed, 
10 hours 


Tensile 
strength 
along 
wales, 
pounds 
per inch 
width, T 


Tensile 
strength 

along j 
courses, 1 
pounds 
per inch 
width, t 


Wales 
per inch 


Pounds 


Sq. yds. 


2 Wales 


1.6 Courses 


18.987 


120.17 


760.1 
Sq. yds. 


3000 
T 


937.5 
t 


Wt. sq. yd. 


V Pounds 


4 Wales 


3.2 Courses 


37.98 


240.36 


1520.2 
Sq. yds. 


6000 
T 


1875 
t 


Wt. sq. yd. 


V Pounds 




1 


Wt. sq. yd. 

37.98 




Sq. yds. 
1520.2 


T 
6000 


t 

1875 


1 


V Pounds 


4 Wales 


3.2 Courses 


240.36 


Wales2 
27.~56 


Course 52 
43.06 


3.269 


131 
Pounds 


5240 


81,625 

rp2 


7973 

i2 


(Wt. per j'd.)2 


(Sq.yds.)2 


Wales 
2.1431 


Courses 

2.679 


4.43 


28.035 


177.31 
Sq. yds. 


699.8 
T 


218.7 
t 


Wt. per yd. 


V Pounds 


..866 Wales 


1.4932 
Courses 


17.72 


112.14 


709.24 
Sq. yds. 


2799 
T 


874.7 

H 


Wt. per yd. 


"^ Pounds 


Wales 


Courses 
1.25 


9.495 


60.08 


380.05 
Sq. yds. 


1500 
T 


468.75 

t 


Wt. per yd. 


V Pounds 


1.25 Wales 


Courses 


11.868 


75.105 


475 


1875 
T 


585.9 
t 


Wt. per j'd. 


^ Pounds 


Sq. yds. 


9.495 
Wales 


11.868 
Courses 


Wt. 




Sq. yds. 
40.04 


T 
157.9 


t 
49.34 


■^ Pounds 


6.3305 


3610 
Wales2 


5641 
Courses^ 


40.075 Wt.2 


Pounds 


(Sq.yds.)2 


623.48 


<2 

60.92 


40.04 


380.05 
Wales 


475 
Courses 


40.04 Wt. 


6.3245 V P 


Yds. 


T 

3.947 

T 


t 


1.2335 


1500 
Wales 


1875 
Courses 


157.9 Wt. 


24.97 v'p 


3.947 
Sq. yds. 


3.2 ( 


468.75 
Wales 


585.9 
Courses 


49.34 Wt. 


7.804 Vp 


1.2335 X 
Sq. yds. 


T 
3.2 


t 

, J 



spr&ssed in terms of those at the top. 



40 



The Science of Knitting 



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Explanation of Formulas for Regular Rib Fabrics 41 

Diameter of Yam. — This is useful to know, although it 
is not expected that the practical knitter will do much calcu- 
lating with the diameter, since the coils per half inch are more 
convenient. 

Nimiber of Yam. — This is very important, but the user 
should remember that it does not always give the exact number 
which is obtained by weighing. Of what use is it then? Of 
much more use than the regular number, which is of use prin- 
cipally for the pounds production and pounds per yard, whereas 
the number determined by the diameter is the one which con- 
cerns the running of the machine, the wales, the courses, the 
width of the fabric, and the square-yard production, all of 
which are of far more importance to the knitter than the others. 
Count the coils in half an inch, multiply them together, and 
divide by 110. The quotient is the cotton number of the yarn. 
Do not worry about the decimal point, for experience will show 
whether the yarn is 2, 20, or 200. Practice by taking one short 
piece of yarn and coiling it several times to see what the average 
error is. One coil in twenty, over or under, is not enough to 
worry about. Some yarns cannot be coiled satisfactorily, such 
as thrown silk and very loosely-twisted worsted. But probably 
95 per cent of the yarns used can be satisfactorily coiled, so the 
method should not be abandoned on account of its hmitations 
until a superior one is found. 

Notice that in the above calculation which gives the final result, 
a covenient approximation to the exact constant is used, namely, 
110 instead of 110.25, which practice should be followed in every 
such case. But when these formulas are used for the derivation 
of other formulas the exact constants should be used in order to 
avoid discrepancies between the derived formulas. 

Cut. — The correct cut (needles per inch) for a given yarn 
is a very important question in knitting. Formerly, before it 
could be answered at all, the number of the yarn had to be 
known, and not only that, but it had to be expressed in the 
yarn count with which the knitter was familiar. Then he 
could give an idea of the cut on which to use it in the light of 
his experience, but if the yarn did not happen to be just the 
number which he had used, he was very likely to misjudge since 
the number of yarn is very misleading as to its size. What 
knitter is there, who in order to find the relative size of two 
yarns, would go to the trouble of extracting the square roots of 



42 The Science of Knitting 

the numbers and comparing the reciprocals of the square roots? 
Not one in a hundred. Yet that is the simplest way of com- 
paring the sizes of yarns. No wonder that the knitter in his 
search for simplicity should get the erroneous notion that the 
cut should be proportional to the yarn number. This seems 
reasonable, since the yarn gets finer as the number increases. 
But it has made trouble for lots of knitters who have tried 
to follow it, since when the user counted that in going from a 
No. 10 to a No. 40 he was getting yarn only one-fourth as large, 
in reality, it was half as large, and was breaking needles to an 
extent not indicated by the rule. But here is a rule — cut from 
^ coils — which makes the yarn diameter proportional to the 
size of the spaces through which the yarn has to go, which rep- 
resents good average practice, and which is applicable without 
yarn numbers at all, provided a little piece of the yarn is at 
hand. It frequently happens that a knitter is shown a sample 
of yarn too small to reel and is asked if it is adaptable to his 
machines. Here is a method of answering the question quickly 
and decisively. Divide the coils in half an inch by 4.29 and the 
quotient is the cut which is generally used for knitting such 
yarn economically. 

Stitches. — The stitches per foot of yarn, although not much 
used, are important and sometimes indispensable. A knitter 
is told to start some machines and having done so is criticized 
for not having used a different length of stitch. Probably 
neither he nor his critics were at fault, but each had been 
brought up to a different standard of fabric. Here, however, is 
a standard based on sufficiently wide observation to make it 
defensible. Of course, after the machines are started and it is 
decided what kind of fabric is required for the particular con- 
ditions, the stitch should be changed accordingly, but in the 
absence of special orders the knitter should have good reasons 
for what he does. Not only this rule for the stitches per foot 
but the other rules as well, are useful as a basis of understand- 
ing between the knitter and his superior. It is not essential 
that either agrees to the constants used. Indeed, it is expected 
that the rules will be modified to meet the local requirements, 
but in their present shape they mark a line from which an 
agreed departure may be made. One cause of serious confusion 
in the knitting business has been this lack of a common ground 
for understanding between a knitter from one section of the 



Explanation of Formulas for Regular Rib Fabrics 43 

country and a superintendent from another, so that the knitter 
frequently had to go back where he came from. 

Wales per Inch. — These are useful in determining what the 
fabric will look like, since the fineness of fabric is considered to 
be represented by the wales per inch. The wales are practically 
independent of the stitches and of the cut. 

Courses per Inch. — These depend on both the diameter of 
the yarn and on the stitches per foot, with the result that 
they are not subject to very close calculation, since a httle 
error in the yarn diameter or in the stitches per foot of yarn 
makes a considerable change m the courses. However, it is 
sometimes desirable to be able to tell what number of courses 
to expect. 

Weight per Yard. — This is seldom used, except in the piece- 
goods business, probably because the means of obtaining it 
have been inconvenient. However, the tables and rules given in 
this book remove much of the difficulty, so there is now no good 
reason for not giving the weight per yard the attention which 
it deserves. It is useful in determining how many square 
^ards make up a dozen of goods, and after that in determining 
the change in weight per dozen resulting from a change in weight 
per yard. Regular rib fabric made of No. 13 yarn (38 coils per 
!ialf inch) weighs about half a pound to the square yard, as the 
equation shows (18.987 -^ coils per one-half inch). Suppose it is 
pade into garments weighing 7 pounds to the dozen. Unless 
f.he trimming is unusually heavy, it may be neglected. Then 
jor the purposes of the mill, one dozen of the goods contains 
I' H- 0.50 = 14 square yards of fabric. Now, suppose the mill 
j;an buy at a bargain a lot of yarn coiling 36 to the half mch, 
ibout one number heavier; 19 ^ 36 = 0.53, the weight per 
quare yard, which multipHed by 14 equals 7.42, which shows 
hat if this yarn is used it will make the goods nearly half a 
•ound per dozen heavier, provided the regular stitch is used. 
Stitches = ^ Coils -^ 1.07.) Many other problems Hke this, 
.'hich should be calculated instead of guessed, may be cal- 
ulated by the use of the simple rule for the weight of regular 
ib fabrics. 

Production in Pounds per Ten Hours per Feed. — This is an 
xtremely useful formula, since the ordinary method of working 
ut production is too laborious for a busy knitter, yet he is 
■equently asked how many pounds per day can be produced 



44 The Science of Knitting 

with yarn like a given sample. Divide 14,443 by the coils in 
half an inch squared; or divide 14,443 by the coils in half 
an inch and then divide the quotient by them again. Suppose 
there are 30 coils per half inch. The square of 30 is 900. 
The quotient of 14,443 -i- 900 is 16, the pounds production 
per feed per 10 hours actual running time. The other calcu- 
lation is 14,443 4- 30 = 4814, and divided by 30 again, equals 
16. There is no allowance for lost time, but none need be made 
if the user knows that his machines are running somewhat 
above the expected 700 diametral revolutions per minute. If 
they are running around 770, a lost time allowance of 10 per 
cent is made by increased speed, so 16 pounds per feed may 
be taken as final. On the other hand, if the knitter wants to 
get the production down fine, he may get the exact lost time 
and the exact diametral revolutions and correct the 16 pounds 
per feed by the methods explained elsewhere. To be very 
exact he should use the production derived from the number 
of the yarn, Column 5, because the number is more reUable when 
weight is concerned, whereas the coils are more reliable when 
size is concerned. 

The pounds-production formula is a good one to try on skep- 
tics. Almost every one knows that rules are of different degrees 
of reliability. For instance, weather forecasts frequently go 
wrong, but the rule that every one must die is quite reliable. 
So it is with knitting rules. The rule for the number of courses 
per inch may go wide of the mark, but the pounds-production 
rule is absolute (provided no mistake has been made in its 
derivation). It is amusing, therefore, to hear some knitter 
remark, " Well, I tried that production rule, and it was wrong, 
just as I thought it would be." That is, the calculated and 
actual results disagreed, so the natural conclusion was that the 
rule must be wrong. But the rule is absolute, so the assumed 
factors were wrong. In other words, the experimenter did not 
get the speed, the yarn number, the stitch, and the time with 
the accuracy which he expected of the rule, so he jumped at 
the conclusion that the rule was wrong, thereby confessing his 
own error. If such mistakes are made in the use of absolute 
rules, they may also be made in the use of the rules which are 
admittedly approximate, so that these rules may be made to ap- 
pear less reliable than they really are. 



Explanation of Regular Flat-fabric Formulas. — Loop-wheel 45 

Square Yards Production. — This is sometimes called for, so the 
mitter should be prepared to give it, although it is much less 
ised than the pounds production. 

Government contracts sometimes specify tensile strength. For 
'sxplanation of the strength formulas see Theory of Knit Fabrics. 

Column No. 3 gives the quantities just discussed in terms of 
he coils per inch for use in calculations, but the knitter need 
iot trouble with these since the coils per half inch are more 
convenient for him. 

Column No. 4 is also for theoretical calculations more than 
or practical problems. 

Column No. 5 is nearly or quite as necessary as Column 
S^o. 2, since the knitter should be able to know what he can do 
vith yarn which he has not seen, as well as with yarn of which 
le has a sample, provided, of course, that the twist or the ma- 
erial does not make it unsuitable for knitting. This column 
;ives what Column No. 2 does but in terms of the yarn number, 
rhe remarks already made apply to this column, so it is not 
lecessary to repeat them. 

The other columns are useful to the investigator, analyst, 
md designer more than to the practical knitter, so he need not 
rouble with them, although in casually' reading them over he 
bay see one or more expressions adapted to his special require- 
Qents. 

DXPLANATION OF REGULAR FLAT-FABRIC FORMULAS.— 

LOOP- WHEEL 

These formulas are based on the following: 

Yarn number = ^^^ ■ . 

40 

Stitches per foot = 3.0983 Gauge. 

Yarn diameter 



1 



21 VNo. 

Courses 4- Wales =1.25. 

Tensile strength of thread = 6000 Dia^. 

Diametral revolutions per minute = 1000 (50 r.p.m. of a 20- 
inch cyl.) 

Fifty revolutions per minute of a 20-inch cylinder is lower 
peed than is used in many places, but since wool work and fine 



Formulas. — Loop-wheel 



1 


2 
h Coils 


3 
Coils 


4 
Dia. 


5 

No. 


6 
Cut 


7 
Gauge 


i Coils 
Coils 
Dia. 

No. 

Cut 

Gauge 

Stitches 

Wales per 
in. 

Courses 
per in. 

Wt. per 
sq. yd. 

Pounds 
per 10 hrs. 

per feed 

Sq. yds. 
per 10 hrs. 

per feed 

Tensile 

strength 

along 

wales, 

pounds 

per inch 

width, T 

Tensile 
strength 

along 

courses, 

pounds per 

inch 

width, t 


\ Coils 


Coils 
2 


1 
2 Dia. 


10.5 Vno. 


2.49 Cut 


1.66 Ga. 


2Xh Coils 


Coils 


1 
Dia. 


21 VNq. 


4.98 Cut 


3.32 Ga. 


1 


1 


Dia. 


1 


1 


1 


2X§ Coils 


Coils 


21 VNo. 


4.98 Cut 


3.32 Ga. 


(1 Coils)2 

110.25 


Coils2 
441 


1 


No. 


Cut2 
17.78 


Ga.2 
40 


441 Dia.2 


i Coils 

2.49 


Coils 

4.98 


1 


4.2165 VNo. 


Cut 


1 Gauge 


4.98 Dia. 


h Coils 
1.66 


Coils 
3.32 


1 


6.3245 VNo. 


f Cut 


Gauge 


3.32 Dia. 


§ Coils 
.5358 


Coils 
1.0716 


1 


19.596 VNo. 


4.6475 Cut 


3.0983 Ga. 


1.0716 Dia. 


1 Coils 
2 


Coils 
4 


1 


5.25 VNo. 


1.245 Cut 


Gauge 

1.2047 


4 Dia. 


\ Coils 
1.6 


Coils 
3.2 


1 


6.5625 Vno. 


1.5563 Cut 


1.0375 Ga. 


3.2 Dia. 


9.494 
1 Coils 


18.987 
Coils 


18.987 Dia. 


.904 
VNo. 


3.813 
Cut 


5.717 
Ga. 


17,755 

(i Coils)2 


71,020 
Coils2 


71,020 X 
Dia.2 


161 
No. 


2862 
Cut2 


6440 
Ga.2 


1869 
h Coils 


3738 
Coils 


3738 Dia. 


178 

Vn^. 


750.6 
Cut 


1125.9 
Ga. 


1500 ' 
i Coils 


3000 
Coils 


3000 Dia. 


142.86 

VNo. 


602.35 
Cut 


903.6 
Ga. 


937.5 
h Coils 


1875 
Coils 


1875 Dia. 


89.29 

VNo. 


376.7 
Cut 


565 
Ga. 



(46) 



The quantities at the left of the table 



dar Flat Fabrics 














8 

Stitches 

1 


9 

Wales 
per in. 


10 

Courses 
per in. 


11 

Wt. per 
sq. yd. 


12 

Pounds 

per 10 hrs. 

per feed 


Sq. yds. 

per 10 hrs. 

per feed 


Tensile 

strength 

along 

wales, 

pounds 

per in. 

width, 

T 


Tensile 
strength 
along 
courses, 
pounds 
per in. 
width, t 


58 Stitches 


2 Wales 


1.6 Courses 


9.494 
Wt. 


133.25 


1869 
Sq. yds. 


1500 
T 


937.5 
t 


V Pounds 


16 Stitches 


4 Wales 


3.2 Courses 


18.987 
Wt. 


266.5 


3738 
Sq. yds. 


3000 
T 


1875 
t 


^/Pounds 


1 


1 


1 


Wt. 
18.987 




Sq. yds. 
3738 


T 
3000 


t 
1875 


"^/Pounds 
266.5 


16 Stitches 


4 Wales 


3.2 Courses 


3titche32 
384 


Wales2 
27.56 


Courses"^ 
43.06 


.81725 

Wt.2 


161 
Pounds 


31.684 


20,411 
y2 


7970 


(Sq. yds.)2 


Stitches 


Wales 
1.245 


Courses 
1.5563 


3.813 
Wt. 


53.543 


750.6 
Sq. yds. 


602.35 
T 


376.7 
t 


4.647.5 


^Pounds 


Stitches 


1.2047 X 
Wales 


Courses 
1.0375 


5.717 
Wt. 


80.26 


1125.9 
Sq. yds. 


903.6 
T 


565 
t 


3.0983 


V Pounds 


Stitches 


3.7325 X 
Wales 


2.986 -X 
Courses 


17.72 
Wt. 


248.7 


3490 
Sq. yds. 


2799.5 
T 


^ 1749.6 

t 


v'Pounds 


Stitches 
3.7325 


Wales 


Courses 
1.25 


4.747 
Wt. 


66.62 


934.5 
Sq. yds. 


750 
T 

937.5 
T 


468.75 
t 


V Pounds 


Stitches 


1.25 X 
Wales 


Coufses 


5.94 
Wt. 


83.27 


1168.1 
Sq. yds. 


586 
t 


2.986 


VPounds 


17.72 


4.747 
Wales 


5.94 
Courses 


Wt. sq. yd. 




196.85 
Sq. yds. 


T 
157.89 


t 

98.75 


^Pounds 
14.036 


Stitches 


61,839 


4438 
Wales2 


6935 
Courses^ 


197.06 Wt.2 


Pounds 


(Sq. yds.)2 


127.23 


<2 

49.57 


5titches2 


196.9 


3490 


934.5 
Wales 


1168.1 
Courses 


196.85 Wt. 


14.032 X 
v^Pounds 


Sq. yds. 


1.246 T 


1.99 f 


Stitches 


2799.5 


750 
Wales 


937.5 
Courses 


157.89 Wt. 


11.26 X 
v'Pounds 


Sq. yds. 
1.246 


T 


1.6 « 


Stitches 


1749.6 


468.75 
Wales 


586 
Courses 


98.75 Wt. 


7.038 X 
v^Pounds 


Sq. yds. 
1.99 


T 
1.6 


t 


Stitches 



jxpressed in terms of those at the top. 



(47) 



48 



The Science of Knitting 



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~ 9 


lOtO'* -^ t- 00 1-- in CO lo i-Hio 05 iM >c t^ 05 ooi-itht-i osootoio 

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Thicknes- 
ses per in. 
Maximum 
No. of 
courses. 
i Coils 
per in. 


t-iO»O>Ot>-lOC1iOu0t— coo lOCO 
OOdOO OC-ir-»005C0 c^lOCO«D'-HlCiO'«tlOOOCO«OTtl<— ICOOS'-liM 
•>tH>.l--t-iOCM00COaD<MCO <MiOt^O:^CMCO-*»OCOiOlOiOiCTtiCOCOM 


COiCIr-05T-HCO-<*l«DI>.050<>1COTtllOin00050i-ICqcO-*iraOt-00 05 0^ 
C^C^CMiMCOCOCOeOCOCO-*-^-^-*'<*lTj<rJc^lO««»0»0»CuO»OiOlO»0«OCO 


Square 

root of 

yarn 

No. 




OOtOOO (MI>--<*<«OlMCO COC005C^1COO«005 05«0 (M>Ot^00l>-lO'-i 

c^c^(Mcqcococococococcrt<'*''<*<-^M<-»t<'*-*'*<>o>o>cmirt>oio»o»o>o 



Sxplanation of Regular Flat-fabric Formulas. — Loop-wheel 49 

Dalbriggan are made at about that speed, and since a compara- 
:ively low speed has been taken for latch-needle rib machines, 
aamely, 700 diametral revolutions, the above loop-wheel speed 
s considered best for use here. Of course, flat-fleece machines 
'un much faster than 1000 diametral revolutions, as do low- 
?rade balbriggan machines, but it has been considered best to 
compromise on this speed rather than to use one which would 
bot be so general. If time would allow, the best method would 
be to work out a complete set of formulas for each different set 
Df established conditions. Until this is done, the reader must 
resort to modifying the conditions given, or to deriving his own 
formulas. The latter is much the better way, and it is not diffi- 
cult since the laws are very simple. 

Although this set of formulas is worked out especially for 
loop-wheel machines making flat work out of single cotton yarn, 
some of the formulas are applicable to other machines which 
conform to part of the conditions. For instance, the latch- 
needle automatic hosiery machine uses about the same weight 
of yarn as that used by the loop-wheel machine. Consequently 
the formulas for cut, stitches, weight per yard, and some others 
apply to the automatic hosiery machine, although of course 
the formula for pounds production does not, neither does that 
for yards production. 

The explanation of the rib formulas applies equally to the 
flat formulas, so the reader is referred to that explanation and 
especially to that portion which shows the importance of Col- 
umns 2 and 5. 

YARN-CUT RULES 
Chart for Latch-needle Rib Machine 

The cut or number of needles per inch is given on the left, 
the cotton number of the yarn is given at the bottom, and the 
three curves give the yarn number called for by the yarn rule, 
jnumber equals cut squared divided by a constant, with con- 
stants respectively 8, 6 and 4, reading do^Tiward on the chart. 
Consequently the heavy-yarn limit is supposed to be repre- 
sented by the highest curve, the average practice by the middle 
curve, and the limit for good fabric by the lower curve, although 
it is to be borne in mind that there is really no definite limit on 
the fine-yarn side. 

The observations of actual practice are represented by marks, 



50 



The Science of Knitting 



as follows: circles stand for single thread, crosses stand for 
double thread or more than double thread on coarse cuts, and 
crosses in squares stand for two-thread work where the dial had 
one-third the number of cuts that the cylinder had. 

Evidently, when the dial is cut coarser than the cylinder, the 





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LATCH NEEDLE RIB CHART 
» Two th read ( or more, on coarae cuta ) 
o Single thread 
B Dial cut less than cylinder cut, two thread 


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r 


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^ ISSifrSie 9 101112ial«U16 WIS 19 20 212-.>23 2't25 2C::7 28 29M31;j£ »;i:i4 j;i;)6ilJ;M;i9 W'tl't2l;i'M«ii«4i48 

Yarn, Cotton Number 



The relation between the yarn and the cut for latch-needle rib machines. 
The cut is on the left. The yarn number is at the bottom. The curves 
show the relations given by the rules for light, medium, and heavy yarn 
respectively. The crosses, squares, and circlea are from actual practice 
irrespective of the rules. 



rib rule does not hold, but the yarn may be much heavier. It 
is shown elsewhere that when the dial needles are removed 
entirely the yarn may be still heavier. 

Three illustrations are evident of the use of yarn much heavier 
than the rule calls for, i.e., 7 yarn for 8 cut, 9 yarn for 9| cut and 



Yarn-cut Rules 51 

U yarn for 10 cut. However, all of these are the single equiva- 
lents of two threads, and show that it is practical to run two 
heavy threads where their single equivalent would not run. 
^o the rule, Number = Cut^ -- 8, may be taken as a rehable 
commercial guide for the heavy limit, except on course cuts as 
is shown below. 

For 6 cut and coarser it is noticeable that the yarn is two 
thread. This is partially due to the practice where the observa- 
tions were made. But in spite of the use of multiple threads, 
svhich favors heavy combined yarn weight, still some of the ob- 
servations of actual practice fall below what any of the rules call 
or. This is true of all kinds of knitting machines so far investi- 
gated, consequently the yarn must be Ughter than that called 
or by the rule for coarse cuts, say for 5 cut and coarser. 

YARN-GAUGE RULES 
Chart for Spring-needle Loop-wheel Machine 

This chart gives a comparison of the yarn rules with actual 
practice, especially in order to show how much allowance should 
)e made in using the rules. 

The fuU lines represent the rules; and the squares, cu-cles and 
rosses represent the actual practice. The square designates 
wo-thread work with a short needle; the cross, two-thread 
v^ork with an ordinary needle; and the circle, single-thread 
V'ork with an ordinary needle. 

The significance of the chart may be understood from a 
pecimen yarn reading, say, 24 gauge, which is as follows: 

Condition Yarn (or single equivalent 

of two yarns) 

Heavy weight rule 9.6 

Average rule 144 

Light weight rule 19.2 

Actual, two-thread, short needle 10, 12, 12.5 

Actual, two-thread, ordinary needle ... 15 

Actual, single-thread, ordinary needle . . 11.5,16 

The following points are important : 

1. For 10 gauge and coarser, actual practice is to use yarn 
ghter than the rule calls for, on account of the improper 

sign of coarse-gauge machines. Allowance should be made 
•r this by using a smaller constant for 10 gauge and under. 



52 



The Science of Knitting 



For instance, if average weight fabric is desired, such as would 
be represented in medium gauges by yarn equal to gauge squared 
divided by 40, then for 8 and 10 gauge, divide by 30, and for 
finer gauges, divide by 25 or 20, according to the adaptability of 
the machine. 



1 



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SPRING NEEDLE LOOP WHEEL CHART 
a Short Needle.Two Thread 
X Two Thread 
Single Thread 












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Yarn, Cotton Number 

The relation between the yarn and the gauge for spring-needle loop-wheel 
circular machines. The gauge is on the left. The yarn number is at the 
bottom. The curves show the relations given by the rules for light, me- 
dium, and heavy yarn respectively. The crosses, squares, and circles are 
from actual practice irrespective of the rules. 



2. Yarn equal to gauge squared divided by 60 seems to repre- 
sent well the practical heavy limit. In this comparison only 
one case exceeds it. Which is No. 5 yarn for 18 gauge. But this 
is the single equivalent of two yarns, and it is for a short needle, 
so it is extreme for an ordinary needle and single yarn. 



lelation of the Diameter of the Yarn to the Needle Spacing 53 

3. The Ught weight rule, yarn equals gauge squared divided 
y 30, does not represent the light limit. This should be evi- 
ent from the fact that for light yarn it is not the diameter but 
he strength which principally determines the limit. This rule 
oes represent fairly well what is called light-yarn-short-stitch 
at work generally used for fine balbriggans. Such fabrics are 
lade in both odd and even gauges. It may be noticed that 
ke single-thread practice for gauges 27, 28, 30 and 31, much of 
J^hich is with high grade balbriggans, conforms closely to this 
file. 

Two-thread work follows the average rule or goes heavier 
scept for 14 gauge and coarser. 

Yarn Rules for Different Machines 



Average 



Circular .spring-need'.e rib No. = 

Circular latch-needle flat (work) No. = 

Straight jack sinker No. = 

Automatic hosiery machines No. = 



Circular spring-needle loop-wheel No. = 



Latch-needle rib ... No. = 



Cut2 

10 
Cut^ 

13 
Gauge - _ Cut2 

56 ~ 24.89 
Cutf 

18 
Gauged Cut2 



40 
Cut2 



17.77 



Approximate 

heavy limit 



Cut_2 

39 
Gauged Cut2 

26.6 
Cut2 



60 



HE RELATION OF THE DIAMETER OF THE YARN TO THE 
NEEDLE SPACING 

It should be evident that the yarn can be no wider than the 
Dace provided for it; and from this consideration, supported by 
3servation of actual practice, Gustave Wilkomm long ago 

termined the average relation of yarn width to distance be- 
veen centers of needles to be as 1 is to 7.4 for flat fabric, 
his was the introduction of science into knitting; consequently, 
le relation of the size of the yarn to the needle spacing is 
storically the most important knitting consideration. But 
though the room for the yarn is of interest and of importance. 



54 The Science of Knitting 

especially concerning the limit of the size of the yarn, other im- 
portant factors should have consideration. A bridge designed 
to carry only the expected load would break under an overload. 
Just so a machine designed only for normal yarn would " smash " 
needles at a bunch or knot, both of which are frequent in com- 
mercial yarn. On the other hand, the yarn is generally flattened 
against the needle during the sinking of the stitch, so that it is 
sometimes possible to feed yarn which otherwise seems too big. 
From these considerations and from the fact that manufactur- 
ers differ in the yarn-space allowance for an equal distance be- 
tween centers of needles, owing to the use of different-sized 
needles and sinkers, it is evident that for general purposes a 
more reliable basis of calculation is desirable. 

Clearly, observation of use is the best means of determining 
usage. A certain kind of barge might be designed to carry a cer- 
tain amount of load, but the best means of determining the capa- 
city of that kind of barge would be by comparing observations 
of actual loads under different conditions. A' load for smooth 
water might be about the calculated capacity, whereas for 
rough water it might be much less. The average capacity, 
which is the one desired, would be somewhere between the two 
just mentioned. So with the knitting machine the prospective 
user wants to know what size yarn he can safely run. Other- 
wise he might sell samples made of a trial lot of selected yarn, 
basing his knitting cost on the running of that yarn and then be 
under the necessity of delivering the goods from " bunchy " 
yarn with consequent extra cost for knitting, whereas if he had 
known what trouble would result, he could have made his 
samples with lighter yarn and so been better prepared to stand 
the overload due to an unexpected increase in the proportion of 
bunches. Indeed, there are so many such considerations which 
affect the size of the yarn with respect to the spacing of the 
needles that the only reliable means of allowing for them is by 
taking the results of actual practice. The constants oi the 
yarn-cut rules given in this book are so obtained and although 
more extensive observation may modify them, still they are 
useful as given. 

The form of these rules is yarn No. = —7^ , in which k is the 

constant, equal to 6 for latch-needle rib machines, 18 for auto- 
matic hosiery machines, etc, 



delation of the Diameter of the Yarn to the Needle Spacing 55 

Since the formula contains the cut (which is the reciprocal of 
he needle spacing) and the yarn number, it gives all that is 
leeded except the relation of the number of the yarn to its 
liameter, which is provided for single cotton hosiery yarn by 

^^' ^ 441Dia.2' 

The relation of the diameter to the cut can now be derived 
is follows: 

No.=^, (1) 



k 
441 Z>2' 



No. = -r^,, (2) 



(i)-('^) ^ = 44rD^' '•^'- • • • (^> 



V(3) 



Cut 1 



Vk 21 D' 

D = ^ .(4) 

21 Cut 

That is, the diameter of the yarn equals the square root of the 
mru-cut-rule constant divided by twenty-one times the cut. 
Transforming (4), 

^ z) X Cut = y^^, 

21 

Z)^^=^. (5) 

Cut 21 ..„, 

1 . '^^ . . . . '• ' 

Now ^=^—7 is the needle spacing, i.e., in a ten-cut machine the 

leedles are spaced y^ inch apart. Consequently, D -r- p-— is 
he proportion of the needle spacing occupied by the yam, which 
•roportion equals ^ , so that the proportion of yarn diameter to 

■eedle spacing is the square root oj the yarn-cut-rule constant 
'ivided by 21. 
Formula (4) for the loop-wheel machine becomes 

1 



D = 



4.98 Cut 
1 X ' 



4.98 '" Cut 
= say, i X Needle Spacing. 



56 



The Science of Knitting 



Consequently, the yarn-diameter-cut formula for any machine 
shows the proportion of needle spacing occupied by the yarn 
diameter. The following table gives the above mentioned rela- 
tions for several types of knitting machine. 



1 


2 


3 

Square 
root of 
yarn- 


4 


5 

Propor- 
tion of 
needle 


Names of machines 


Yarn-cut 
rules 


cut rule 
con- 
stant 




spacing 
occupied 
by yarn 
diameter 








21 


vl 






Vik 












Vk 


21 


Hosiery, automatic 


Cut2 ~ 18 


4.2425 


4.948 


.202 


Latch- needle flat 


Cut2 -4- 13 


3 . 6055 


5.824 


.17167 


Latch- needle rib 


Cut2 -=- 6 


2.4495 


8.573 


.11663 


Spring-needle loop-wheel . . . 


Cut2-^ 17.77 


4.2155 


4.982 


.20072 


Spring- needle rib 


Cut2 -f- 10 


3.1623 


6.640 


. 15059 


Rule for flattened width \ 










of tube same as diam- > 


Cut2^ 11.17 


3.342 


6.284 


.15913 


eter of needle line. ) 










Straight jack-sinker ma- ) 
chine ) 


Cut2-T- 24.98 


4.989 


4.209 ^ 


.23745 


Rule for fabric same i 










width as length of ? 


Cut2-=- 27.56 


5.25 


4 


.25 


needle line ' 











Rules are given also for machines which produce fabric as 
wide as the machine, a rule for the circular machine and a 
rule for the flat machine. From this it is seen that for the 

circular machine, yarn with diameter ^-^ of the needle spacing 

makes fabric as wide as the machine when the tube is flattened. 
Consequently, finer yam makes fabric narrower than the ma- 
chine and heavier yarn makes fabric wider than the machine. 
With the straight jack-sinker machine evidently the yarn must 
be I of the needle spacing to make fabric as wide as the machine, 
since four diameters make a wale and the width of the wale 
must equal the needle spacing in order to have the fabric as wide 
as the machine (on the needle line) . Yarn according to the aver- 
age rule is -^-^ of the needle spacing, which is very near to j. 



Width of Flattened Tube of Fabric 57 

This diagram shows graphically what Column 5 shows numeri- 
cally. 



o o o O 

Yarn which makes 
iwp W.Flat Auto Hosiery Jack Sinker Fabric as wide as 

Straight Machine 



o O O O 

r nj DiK o • TVT ■D\. Yam which makes Tube ^ »t r-n ^ 

L.N. Rib SpnngN.Rib ., ,. , ., ,. L.N.Flat 

as wide as dia.of Machine 



rhe distance between adjacent lines represents the distance from center to 

center of needle (in one set, for rib machines) . 
rhe circles show the proportional diameter of yarn used on the machines 

named under them. ) 

When the same-sized yarn is used on these different machines, the cut is 

inversely proportional to the diameters of these circles, so the latch-needle 

rib machine requires the coarsest cut. 

WIDTH OF FLATTENED TUBE OF FABRIC FOR DIF- 
FERENT NUMBERS OF NEEDLES AND YARN 

As is demonstrated elsewhere, the theoretical width of the 
abric does not depend directly on the diameter of the cylinder 
Dut on the diameter of the yarn and on the number of needles 
n the cylinder. The actual width differs from the theoretical 
»vidth according to the extent of compression of the yarn, the 
iistortion of the stitch, and the inaccuracy in determining the 
>^arn diameter. Therefore, allowances must be made accord- 
ng to these conditions. In order to facilitate making these 
illowances, the numbers of needles used vary by twentieths, 
^g., 200, 210, 220, etc. Consequently, if it is desired to make 
m allowance of 10 per cent more than the theoretical width, it 
nay be done without calculating by reading the width two 
columns farther to the right than the nearest number of needles, 
[f the allowance is to be 10 per cent less, the reading should be 
wo columns to the left of the nearest number of needles. In- 
ismuch as exact results are not to be expected, the division of 
he needles by twentieths is close enough for practical pur- 



58 The Science of Knitting 

poses, since by using the number in the table nearest to the 
desired number the error cannot be over 2| per cent, which 
is closer than the diameter of the yarn can be measured. 

It would be desirable to have a table from which the width of 
the fabric might be read at once, but this is an impossibility in 
the present state of knowledge. However, experience indicates 
that in any one mill with any one type of machine and kind of 
yarn, the variation from the theoretical width is quite regular, 
say 5 per cent or 10 per cent over or under. The variations 
from the table appear to be about as follows: 

Small ribbers with a well-closed dial stitch .and good take-up 
tension, 10 per cent less than the theoretical. 

Rib body machines, without fabric ring, 10 per cent more 
than the theoretical. 

Rib body machines, with fabric ring, same as the theoretical. 

Loop-wheel flat-work machines, 10 per cent less. 

Automatic hosiery machines, normal stitch, same as table. 

Small latch-needle machine, fiat work, very tight take-up 
tension, 30 per cent less. 

Large latch-needle machine, flat work, 10 per cent less. 

Cardigan lies out wider than corresponding plain rib from 
43 per cent to 91 per cent, average 66 per cent. 

Tuck lies out wider than corresponding plain rib from 42 
per cent to 65 per cent, average 53 per cent. 

Consequently, to get the width of either tuck or cardigan, 
determine the width of the plain rib fabric according to the 
table and the machine as given above, and then add, say 50 
per cent for tuck, and 70 per cent for cardigan. 

The above suggestions are not to be taken as final, since 
much more observation will be necessary for forming definite 
conclusions. Therefore, whoever has frequent need of de- 
termining the width of the fabric from the yarn and the number 
of needles should derive his own allowances by recording the 
differences' between the table and the actual fabric, and then 
using the average difference for an allowance to be applied to 
the table. For instance, if the average of a number of obser- 
vations is 10 per cent less than the table, and the extremes are 5 
per cent either way, then the user may count with some certainty 
on coming within 5 per cent of the actual if he discounts the table 
by 10 per cent. Do not depend on memory for the determination 
of the correction, for gross errors are sure to result. 



Width of Flattened Tube of Fabric 



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IC »0 »n »C lO 


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62 



The Science of Knitting 





00 


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Width of Fabric from Different Machines 63 

WIDTH OF FABRIC FROM DIFFERENT MACHINES 

Consider a straight machine first. The cut is the number of 
eedles per inch. Therefore, the distance from center to center 

f adjoining needles is jr-: ' If tiie wale is the same width as the 

istance from center to center of adjoining needles, then the fabric 
all be just as wide as the machine, i.e., just as wide as the length 
f needle hne taken to produce it. But the wale is as wide as 
)ur times the diameter of the yarn. Therefore, the condition 
)r fabric as wide as the machine is 

4 Dia. = -p^r— f 
Cut 

Dia. = 



4 Cut 

Consequently on a straight machine if the diameter of the yarn is 
lual to one divided hy four times the cut, the fabric will be as mide 
s the needle line is long. 

The rule for the number of yarn to make fabric as wide as 
le machine is derived as follows: 

From above, ^ Dia. = . ^ ^ , (1) 

4 Cut 

ut Dia. = \^ (2) 

21 VNo. 

J) - (1) ^ ^ 



quarmg No. = 



4 Cut 21 VNo. 
Cut = 5.25 VNo. 

Cut2 



27.56 



Which is to say, on a straight machine if the number of the yarn 
equal to the cut multiplied by itself and divided by 27.56, the 
',bric will be as wide as the needle line is long. 

The same considerations apply to the circular machine, with 
le added one that reduction must be made from the circular 
) the flat shape, since the diameter of the machine is used in- 
ead of the circumference to express its size. If the rule just 
ven were followed, the fabric would lie out about f ^s wide 
J the diameter of the machine, because it would be half as wide 



64 The Science of Knitting 

as the distance around the circumference of the machine. Con- 
sequently, the yarn should be only about two-thirds of the 
diameter which is required by the straight machine. 
That diameter is 

1 



(1) Dia. = 



4 Cut 



The ratio of the circumference of the circle to the diameter is 
3.1416, so the diameter of the yarn should be multiplied by 

2 
„ -, ■ ., ^. in order to make the doubled width of the cloth the 

d.l4lD 

same as the diameter of the machine. 

1 9 1 

X 



4 Cut 3.1416 6.283 Cut 

Consequently, on a circular machine if the diameter of the yarn 
equals one divided by 6.283 times the cut, the width oj the flattened 
tube of fabric will equal the diameter of the needle line. 

But the diameter of the yarn = -==^ J 

21 VNo. 

*^^^^^«^^' 6-:28lcut = ^IV^; 

or Cut = 3.342 VNo. 

Cut2 



No. = 



11.17 



Or, in words, on a circular machine if the number of the yarn is 
equal to the cut multiplied by itself and divided by 11.17, the icidth 
of the flattened tube of fabric will equal the diameter of the needle 
line. 

However, the size of the yarn is generally determined by 
more important considerations than the width of the fabric, 
such as its adaptability to economical knitting, the weight and 
appearance of the fabric, etc., so the rules based on general 
practice are the ones which should be used until other rules 
are shown to be as good. The demonstrations just given are 
not only useful for showing the general relation of the width of 
fabric and size of machine, but they may be used to calculate 
the width when the ordinary yarn rules are known. 



Width of Fabric from Different Machines 



65 



The general form of the yarn rule is 

Cut2 
No. =^. 

Extract the square root of both sides of the equation 



3ut from (2) 



(3) - (4) 



/^r- . Cut 

Vk 
VNo. = 



1 



21 Dia. yarn 

Cut 



(3) 



(4) 



21 Dia. yarn V/c 

But it is well known that the width of fabric from any one 
dnd of machine is independent of the cut, since the same width 
)f fabric is expected from any one diameter regardless of the 



Hosiery, automatic 

Latch- needle, flat 

Latch- needle, rib 

Spring- needle, loop-wheel 

Spring- needle, rib 

General rule for fabric same 
width as circular machine 



Circular machines 



Rule 



Cut2 

18 
Cut" 

13 
Cut2 

6 

Cut2 

17.77 

Cut2 

10 
Cut^ 

11.17 



Constant 



18 

13 

6 

17.77 
10 
11.17 



VConstant 



4.2425 
3.6055 
2.4495 
4.2155 
3.1623 
3.42 



Width of fab- 
ric (double) 

4- dia. of 
needle line 



1.27* 
1.08 

.73 
1.26 

.95 
1 



Straight machines 



Straight jack-sinker . 



General rule for fabric same 
width as flat machine 



Cut2 

24.89 
Cut" 
27.56 



24.89 
27.56 



4.989 
5.25 



Width of fab- 
ric (single) 
-r- length of 
needle line 



.95 



Normal stitch. 



66 The Science of Knitting 

cut, so the cut may be regarded as constant. Then the equa- 
tion shows that the diameter of the yarn is proportional to 
the square root of the yarn-rule constant. Consequently, the 
width of fabric from different machines is proportional to the 
square roots of their yarn-rule constants. But we already know 
the rules for fabric of the same width as the machines; for in- 

stance, for circular machines with yarn No. = j~-^ the fabric 

is just as wide as the machine. For latch-needle rib machines 
the regular constant is 6. The square root of 6 is 2.45 and the 
square root of 11.17 is 3.324. Since the square roots of the 
constants express the width of the fabric, and since 3.324 rep- 
resents unit width, the width of fabric to be expected from latch- 
needle rib machines is as 2.45 is to 3.324 or 0.73. The table 
on page 65 shows this as well as the widths to be expected 
from other machines. 

THE PRODUCTION OF CIRCULAR KNITTING MACHINES 

Units of Production. — The production may be given in com- 
mon units of measure, such as pounds, square yards, linear 
yards, etc., or in trade units, such as dozen garments, dozen 
pairs, etc.; but to use trade units intelligently requires a knowl- 
edge of the pounds or yards in each such unit, so for common 
use it is best to give the production in common units. 

Pound is the Simplest Unit. — The pound is the simplest 
unit since it is the easiest to measure and since the length and 
breadth of the fabric do not have to be considered. 

Production Factors. — The production in pounds depends on 
the following variables: needle velocity, number of feeds, weight 
of yarn, length of stitch and actual running time — five in all. 

Explanation of Diametral Revolutions. — Needle velocity is 
generally expressed as revolutions per minute, to which it is 
proportional for a- given diameter, i.e. if one 20-inch machine 
runs 20 r.p.m. and another 40 r.p.m., the needle velocity of the 
second cylinder is twice that of the first. But this method of 
expressing the velocity necessitates stating the diameter in 
every case, so it is better to express the velocity in diametral 
revolutions per minute (dia. r.p.m.) which is the product of the 
diameter in inches and the revolutions per minute. A 20-inch 
machine running 20 r.p.m. has a needle velocity of 20 X 20 = 
400 dia. r.p.m. This is especially convenient for knitting ma- 



I The Production of Circular Knitting Machines 67 

ihines, in which the needle velocity is generally constant for 
iifferent diameters, since it not only faciUtates calculating the 
aroduction but enables determining the speed of different- 
sized machines. 

Diametral-revolutions Constant for Knitting Machine. — 
Suppose a particular kind of work is tried on a 20-inch machine 
ind is found to run best at 20 r.p.m. Then 20 X 20 or 400 is 
bhe speed in dia. r.p.m. for all of the machines; according to 
sv'hich a 10-inch should run 400 -^ 10 = 40 r.p.m., and a 16-inch, 
iOO ^ 16 = 25 r.p.m. For these and other reasons the needle 
velocity is expressed in dia. r.p.m. and 700 is taken as a fair 
average for rib work, except automatic work on small machines 
For which 420 is taken. 

Conditions for High Velocity. — Generally, good conditions of 
yarn, machine and attendance favor good needle velocity and 
vice versa. Light yarn and a fairly loose stitch favor good 
velocity, since bunches and knots have room to pass between 
the needles without causing trouble. Each manufact^urer 
should determine for himself the best speed for his conditions. 

Advisable to Start Low. — It is advisable to start low and then 
gradually work up to the point where the cost of knitting per 
unit of production is the least. 

Maximum Number of Feeds Generally Used. — The number 
of feeds is generally the greatest that can be used on the machine 
or for the pattern required. 

Selection of Yam Number. — The weight of yarn is limited 
to an extent by the cut and after that by the weight of the goods, 
the cost of the goods, etc. Since cotton is the most used knitting 
material, the number of the yarn is generally given in the cotton 
count. 

Number of Yam Proportional to Square of Cut. — The number 
of the yam is proportional to the square of the cut or gauge, i.e. 
if the cut is made twice as fine, the yarn number should be four 
times as fine. 

Possible Variation of Yam. For latch-needle rib machines the 
variation in the yarn number for a given cut is generally not over 
twice the heaviest. In other words, if No. 8 is about as heavy 
as is practical. No. 16 would be about the light limit. It is of 
course understood that the extreme light limit is the lightest 
thread that will hold together during the formation of the stitch, 
but the fabric so made would be worthless. 



68 



The Science of Knitting 



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The Production of Circular Knitting Machines 



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70 The Science of Knitting 

Stitches per Foot of Yarn and Courses per Inch. — The length 
of stitch is best expressed by the number of cyhnder needles per 
one foot of yarn. The number of courses per inch is frequently 
used, but the production in pounds cannot be calculated from 
the courses because it is not known how much yarn is required 
to make a given number of courses. One foot of yarn takes up 
from 3 inches to 5 inches of needles in a latch-needle rib machine. 

For cuts from Nos. 4 to 14 inclusive and yarn = ■ ^^, one foot 

of yarn fills about 4 inches of needles for a good fabric, so 4 
inches is taken as the average. When the yarn is lightened, the 
stitch is generally tightened and vice versa. 

Causes of Lost Time. — The running time of course depends on 
the number of hours m the working day, on the conditions of yarn, 
attendance, and machine, whether stop motions are used, etc. 
Generally, the greater the number of feeds, the greater will be 
the stoppage from yarn defects and for replacement of bobbins or 
cones. Estimates of stoppage run from 10 per cent to 20 per cent. 

Factors of Linear Yard Production. — The production in 
linear yards is dependent on the speed, feeds, and courses per 
inch. It is obtained by calculating the number of courses 
made per day by the machine and then dividing this number by 
the number of courses in a yard of the fabric. 

The production in hanks is found by calculating the number 
of yards of yarn used by the machine per day, dividmg it by the 
number of yards in a hank, and dividing the result by the num- 
ber of the yarn. 

The production in square yards is equal to the number of 
stitches made per unit of time divided by the number of stitches 
per square yard; but since the latter is inconvenient to get, the 
stitches per square inch are used and multiplied by 36 X 36 = 
1296, the number of square inches in a square yard. 

Explanation of General Rib-fabric Production Table in Pounds 

Page" 72 

This table gives the production in pounds for 10 hours actual 
running time for^all factors variable except stitches, which are 
taken at 9.8 VNo., that is, one foot of yarn occupies four inches 
of needles. 

To use the table multiply together the diameter of the cylinder 
in inches, the revolutions per minute and the feeds: select the 



Production 71 

number at the top of the table nearest to this product and read 
the answer under it opposite the number of the yarn used. 

Example. — How many pounds of fabric will be produced 
in ten hours under the following conditions? 

Diameter of cylinder 16 inches, 
Revolutions per minute 44, 
Feeds 8, 

Yarn No. 11 cotton, 

Multiply together the diameter, the revolutions per minute, 
and the feeds 

16 X 44 X 8 = 5,632. 

See the table on page 72 

The nearest number at the top of the table is 5,400, and under 
it, opposite No. 11 yarn is 91.75. Discount this, say 20 per 
cent for lost time, which gives 73.4 pounds. 

The average production of spring-needle circular loop-wheel 
flat work is 1.23 times that given in the table. For instance, 
such a machine under the above conditions would, in 10 hours 
actual time, produce 91.75 X 1.23 = 113 pounds. 

Production Table in Hanks for Rib Machine — Example 

Page 73 

How many pounds of fabric will be produced in a 10-hour 
day by a 6-feed, 18-inch machine running 50 r.p.m. and using 
No. 10 cotton yarn. The diametral revolutions are 18 X 50 = 
900. The constant for 900 dia. r.p.m. and 6 feeds is 908.75, 
which divided by 10, the yarn number, = 91, the pounds pro- 
duction for 9 hours, which under good conditions may be taken 
as the production for a 10-hour day. 

If the yarn is two thread get either (1) the production for the 
equivalent single-thread or (2) the total of the productions for 
each thread. For instance, what is the pounds production per 
10-hour day of a 4-feed machine making 700 diametral revo- 
lutions per minute and using a No. 8 yarn and a No. 24 yarn at 
each feed. 

(1) The equivalent single yarn is ^ — r— x = -5^ = 6. The 

ii4 -\- O oZ 

constant for 700 diametral r.p.m. and 4 feeds is 471.2, which 
divided by 6 = 78.6, the pounds production. 



72 The Science of Knitting 

(2) The production for each thread is 

471.2 -^ 8 =59 
471.2 4- 24 = 19^ 

78.6. Total production. 

General Rib-fabric Production Table in Pounds 

For explanation see pages 70 and 71 
Production. Pounds of rib fabric per 10 hours actual running time 



Yarn 
No. 

5 


Diameter X r.p.m. X Feeds 


500 


1200 


1900 


2600 
97.2 


3300 


4000 


4700 


5400 


6100 


6800 


7500 


18.69 


44.86 


71.03 


123.35 


149.52 


175.7 


201.85 


228.00 


254.20 


280.35 


6 


15.58 


37.38 


59.19 


81.00 


102.80 


124.60 


146.4 


168.22 


190.00 


211.80 


233.65 


7 


13.35 


32.05 


50.74 


69.43 


88.12 


106.80 


125.5 


144.20 


162.90 


181.60 


200.30 


8 


11.68 


28.04 


44.39 


60.75 


77.10 


93.46 


109.8 


126.16 


142.52 


158.87 


175.23 


9 


10.32 


24.76 


39.20 


53.64 


68.08 


82.52 


96.97 


111.40 


125.95 


140.30 


154.73 


10 


9.35 


22.43 


35.52 


48.60 


61.68 


74.76 


87.85 


100.94 


114.00 


127.10 


140.19 


11 


8.50 


20.39 


32.29 


44.18 


56.07 


67.97 


79.86 


91.75 


103.65 


115.54 


127.43 


12 


7.79 


18.69 


29.60 


40.50 


51.40 


62.30 


73.21 


84.11 


95.02 


105.90 


116.80 


13 


7.19 


17.25 


27.32 


37.38 


47.45 


57.51 


67.58 


77.64 


87.70 


97.77 


107.95 


14 


6.68 


16.02 


25.37 


34.72 


44.06 


53.40 


62.75 


72.10 


81.44 


90.78 


100.13 


15 


6 23 


14.95 


23.68 


32,40 


41.12 


49.84 


58.57 


67.29 


76.01 


84.73 


93.46 


16 


5.84 


14.02 


22.20 


30.38 


38.55 


46.73 


54.91 


63.08 


71.26 


79.44 


87.85 


17 


5.50 


13.20 


20.89 


28.59 


36.28 


43.98 


51.68 


59.37 


67.07 


74.76 


82.46 


18 


5.19 


12.46 


19.73 


27.00 


34.27 


41.54 


48.81 


56.07 


63.34 


70.61 


77.89 


19 


4.92 


11.80 


18.69 


25.58 


32.47 


39.35 


46.24 


53.12 


60 00 


66.90 


73.78 


20 


4.67 


11.21 


17.75 


24.30 


30.84 


37.38 


43.92 


50.46 


57.00 


63.55 


70.09 


21 


4.45 


10.68 


16.91 


23.14 


29.37 


35.60 


41.83 


48.06 


54.29 


60.52 


66.75 


22 


4.25 


10.20 


16.14 


22.09 


28.04 


33.98 


39.93 


45.88 


51.82 


57.77 


63.72 


Yarn 
No. 


8200 


8900 


9600 


10,30C 


11,000 


11,700 


12,400 


13,100 


13,800 


14,500 


5 


306.50 


332.70 


358.90 


385. OC 


411.20 


437.40 


463.50 


489.70 


515.90 


542.10 


6 


255.45 


277.25 


299.05 


320.85 


342.70 


364.50 


386.30 


408.10 


429.90 


451.70 


7 


219.00 


237.65 


256.35 


275.05 


293.75 


312.45 


331.15 


349.85 


368.55 


387.20 


8 


191.60 


207.95 


224.30 


240.65 


257.00 


273.40 


289.70 


306.10 


322.40 


338.80 


9 


169.16 


183.60 


198.05 


212.50 


226.95 


241.40 


255.85 


270.27 


284.70 


299.15 


10 


153.26 


166.35 


179.43 


192.51 


205.60 


218.70 


231.80 


244.85 


257.95 


271.05 


11 


139.33 


151.22 


163.12 


175.00 


186.90 


198.80 


210.70 


222.60 


234.50 


246.40 


12 


127.70 


138.60 


149.50 


160. 4C 


171.35 


182.50 


193.15 


204.05 


215.00 


225.95 


13 


117.90 


127.95 


138.00 


186. 9C 


158.15 


168.23 


178.30 


188.35 


198.40 


208.50 


14 


109.47 


118.80 


128.15 


137. 5C 


146 85 


156.20 


165.55 


174.90 


184.25 


193.60 


15 


102.17 


110.90 


119.60 


128.34 


137.07 


145.80 


154.52 


163.25 


171.96 


180.70 


16 


95.80 


103.97 


112.15 


120.32 


128.50 


136.70 


144.86 


153.04 


161.22 


169.40 


17 


90.16 


97.86 


105.55 


113.24 


120.95 


128.64 


136.34 


144.04 


151.73 


159.43 


18 


85.16 


92.42 


99.70 


106.95 


114.23 


121.50 


128.77 


136.05 


143.30 


150.58 


19 


80.67 


87.56 


94.44 


101.33 


108.22 


115.10 


122.00 


128.87 


135.76 


142.65 


20 


76.63 


83.17 


89.71 


96.25 


102.80 


109.34 


115.88 


122.42 


128.96 


136.50 


21 


72.98 


79.21 


85.44 


91.67 


97.91 


104.13 


110.36 


115.80 


116.40 


129.05 


22 


69.66 


75 62 


81.56 


87.51 


93.46 


99.41 


105.35 


111.30 


117.25 


123.20 



Production 



73 



Production Table in Hanks for Rib Machine 

For example see bottom of page 71 

Constants which dividedby the cotton number of the yarn give the production 
of latch-needle circular rib knitting machines in pounds per 9 hours actual time. 
The stitches per foot of yarn are four times the cut. 



R.p.m. 


Dia. 
r.p.m. 


Feeds 


(20 in.) 


1 


2 


3 


4 


20 


400 


67.31 


134.63 


201. <:5 


269.27 


25 


500 


84.14 


168.30 


252. r. 


336.60 


30 


600 


100.97 


201.95 


302. 9. i 


403.90 


35 


700 


117.80 


235.61 


353.42 


471.20 


40 


800 


134.63 


269.27 


403.90 


538.53 


45 


900 


151.46 


302.92 


454.38 


605.85 


50 


1000 


168.29 


336.59 


504.88 


673.17 






5 


6 


7 


8 


20 


400 


336.60 


403.90 


471.20 


538.55 


25 


500 


420.73 


504.90 


589.00 


673.20 


30 


600 


504.90 


605.85 


706.80 


807.80 


35 


700 


589.00 


706.80 


824.65 


942.40 


40 


800 


673.15 


807.80 


942.40 


1077 .)00 


45 


900 


757.30 


908.75 


1060.20 


1211.60 


50 


1000 


841.45 


1009.70 


1178.00 


1346.30 






9 


10 


11 


12 


20 


400 


605.90 


673.15 


740.50 


807.80 


25 


500 


757.30 


841.45 


925.60 


1009.70 


30 


600 


908.77 


1009.70 


1110.70 


1211.70 


35 


700 


1060.20 


1178.00 


1296.00 


1413.60 


40 


800 


1211.60 


1346.30 


1481.00 


1615.60 


45 


900 


1363.10 


1514.60 


1666.00 


1817.50 


50 


1000 


1514.50 


1682.90 


1851.20 


2019.50 






13 


14 


15 


16 


20 


400 


875.20 


942.50 


1009.70 


1077.00 


25 


500 


1094.00 


1178.00 


1262.00 


1346.30 


30 


600 


1312.70 


1413.70 


1514.60 


1615.60 


35 


700 


1531.40 


1649.30 


1767.00 


1885.00 


40 


800 


1750.30 


1885.00 


2019.50 


2154.00 


45 


900 


1969.00 


2120.50 


2272.00 


2423.40 


50 


1000 


2187.90 


2356.10 


2524.30 


2692.70 

1 



Cut 


Yarn 


Cut 


Yarn 


3 


1.5 


9 


13.5 


4 


2.7 


10 


16.7 


5 


4.2 


11 


20.2 


6 


6.0 


12 


24.0 


7 


8.2 


13 


28.2 


8 


10.8 


14 


32.7 



74 



The Science of Knitting 



Production Table in Hanks for Loop-wheel Machine 

Constants which divided by the cotton number of the yarn give the produc- 
tion of spring-needle circular loop-wheel knitting machines in pounds per ten 
hours actual time. The stitches per foot are three times the gauge. 



R.p.m. 

(20 in. 
cyl.) 


Dia. 
r.p.m. 


Feeds | 


1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


70 
60 
50 
40 
30 
20 
10 


1400 
1200 
1000 
800 
600 
400 
200 


223 

193 

160 

128 

97 

65 

32 


447 
383 
320 
256 
192 
129 
64 


670 
575 
480 
384 
290 
193 
95 


893 
765 
640 
510 
385 
255 
128 


1115 
965 
800 
640 
480 
325 
160 


1337 
1145 
960 
766 
575 
385 
194 


1560 
1340 
1115 
894 
670 
450 
224 


1783 

1530 

1275 

1020 

767 

510 

255 


2000 

1720 

1435 

1148 

860 

575 

290 


2230 

1920 

1600 

1280 

960 

640 

320 



Example. — What is the production in pounds per day of a 
6-feed spring-needle circular loop-wheel machine 15 inches in 
diameter, running 60 revolutions per minute and knitting 
No. 10 cotton yarn? 

The diametral revolutions per minute are 15 X 60 = 900. 
The table does not give this, but does give 800 and 1,000, and 
since what is desired is halfway between these, take half of the 
hanks given under 6 feeds and opposite 800 and 1,000. That is, 
half of 960 + 766 = I X 1726 = 863. This number of hanks, 
863, divided by the yarn. No. 10, gives 86.3, the pounds pro- 
duction for 10 hours actual running time. Discount this by 
the proportion of lost time, or by one-tenth, if the lost time is 
not known. The actual production then for good conditions 
is 86.3 X 0.9 = 77.7. 

For two-thread work see two-thread example for rib-produc- 
tion table in hanks, bottom of page 71 and top of page 72. 

For fleeced-underwear fabric obtain the face production by 
either two-thread method, pages 71 and 72, and double it to allow 
for the weight of the backing. 

Production Table Linear Yards — Explanation 

Pages 76 and 77 

If the number of courses of fabric made in an hour is known 
and this number is divided by the courses per yard, the quotient 
will be the linear yards produced per hour. Since the number 
of courses per inch depends both on the diameter of the yarn 
and on the stitches per foot of yarn, as well as on other con- 



Production 75 

litions, a table to meet all of the requirements would be both 
)ulky and costly. However, the courses produced by the 
nachine may be easily calculated, and if the courses per inch 
ire counted in the sample in question, if at hand, or taken from 
he guide table herewith, and divided into the courses produced 
)y the machine, the linear yards may be obtained satisfactorily 
rom a comparatively small table, such as the one on page 76. 
The table is based on the following calculations: 

The courses per hour = r.p.m. X feeds X 60 . (1). 
The courses per linear yard = courses per inch X 36 . (2). 
The linear yards per hour = (1) -r- (2) 

r.p.m. X feeds X 60 



36 X courses per inch 
_ 1.667 X r.p.m. X feeds 
courses per inch 
constant 



courses per inch ^ 

The table shows the constants for different revolutions per 
ninute of circular machines or strokes per minute of straight 
nachines and for different numbers of feeds. The constants 
nust he divided by the courses per inch to get the linear yards. 
5ince the production-in linear yards is independent of the diam- 
eter of the machine, except as it affects the revolutions per 
ninute, the diameters are given merely as an alternative guide 
or use for latch-needle machines when the revolutions per 
ninute are not known. Deduction should be made from the 
esult obtained, in proportion to the time lost. 

Production, Linear Yards 

Pages 76 and 77 

Example. — How many linear yards, per 10-hour day, of fabric 
laving 24 courses per inch, will be produced by a 4-feed machine 
unning 100 r.p.m.? In the table opposite 100 r.p.m. and under 
t feeds is the constant 667, which divided by 24, the number 
>f courses, gives 27.8, the linear yards per hour, actual time, 
jince the machine has only four feeds, the lost time may be 
ionsidered 10 per cent in the absence of definite information, 
rhen the day will consist of 9 hours actual running time, 
o the actual production in linear yards per day will be 
17.8 X 9 = 250. 



76 



The Science of Knitting 



Production, Linear Yards 

For explanation see bottom of page 74 

Constants which divided by the number of courses per inch give the production 
of knitting machines in linear yards per hour. 





R.p.m. of 














1 




circular 


















machine. 








Feeds 








Dia. 


Strokes 

per min. of 

straight 
































machine 


1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


1 


700 


1167.0 


2333.0 












u 


564 


940.0 


1880.0 












u 


462 


770.0 


1540.0 


2310. 










u 


400 


666.7 


1333.0 


2000. 










2 


350 


583.3 


1167.0 


1750. 










2i 


311 


518.3 


1037.0 


1555. 










2h 


280 


466.7 


933.3 


1400. 










21 


255 


425.0 


850.1 


1275. 










3 


233 


388.3 


776.7 


1165. 










3J 


215 


358.3 


716.7 


1075. 










3^ 


200 


333.3 


666.7 


1000. 


1333. 








3i 


187 


311.7 


623.4 


935. 


1247. 








4 


175 


291.7 


583.3 


875. 


1167. 








4i 


165 


275.0 


550.0 


825. 


1100. 


1375. 






4i 


156 


260.0 


520.0 


780. 


1040. 


1300. 






4f 


147 


245.0 


490.0 


735. 


980. 


1225. 






5 


140 


233.3 


466.7 


700. 


933. 


1167. 






5i 


133 


221.6 


443.3 


665. 


887. 


1108. 


1333. 


1552. 


5i 


127 


211.7 


423.3 


635. 


847. 


1058. 


1270. 


1482. 


51 


122 


203.3 


406.7 


610. 


813. 


1017. 


1220. 


1423. 


6 


117 


195.0 


390.0 


585. 


780. 


975. 


1170. 


1365. 


7 


100 


166.7 


333.3 


500. 


667. 


833. 


1000. 


1167. 


8 


88 


146.7 


293.3 


440. 


587. 


733. 


880. 


1027. 


9 


78 


130 


260.0 


390. 


520. 


650. 


780. 


910. 


10 


70 


116.7 


233.3 


350. 


467. 


583. 


700. 


817. 


11 


64 


106.7 


213.3 


320. 


427. 


533. 


640. 


747. 


12 


58 


96.7 


193.3 


290. 


387 


483. 


619. 


677. 


13 


54 


-90.0 


180.0 


270. 


360. 


450. 


540. 


630. 


14 


50 


83.3 


166.7 


250. 


333. 


417. 


500. 


583. 


15 


47 


78.3 


156.7 


235. 


313. 


392. 


470. 


548. 


16 


44 


73.3 


146.7 


220. 


293. 


367. 


440. 


513. 


17 


41 


68.3 


136.7 


205. 


273. 


342. 


410. 


478. 


18 


39 


65.0 


130.0 


195. 


260. 


325. 


390. 


455. 


19 


37 


61.7 


123.3 


185. 


247. 


308. 


370. 


431. 


20 


35 


58.3- 


116.7 


175.. 


233. 


292. 


351. 


408. 


21 


33 


55.0 


110 


165 


220. 


275. 


330. 


385. 


22 


32 


53.3 


106.7 


160. 


213. 


267. 


320. 


373. 


23 


30 


50.0 


100.0 


150. 


200. 


250. 


300. 


350. 


24 


29 


48.3 


96.7 


145. 


193. 


242. 


290. 


338. 



Production, Linear Yards 



77 



If the number of courses is not known, but the cut is known, 
then from the guide table take the number of courses opposite 
the cut. 

Excepting the diameter column and the cut table the figures 
apply to any knitting machine, either circular or straight. 





R.p.m. of 




















circular 










Feeds 










machine. 


















Dia. 


Strokes 
per min. of 








































straight 
machine 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


1 


700 




















u 


564 




















u 


462 




















n 


400 
















Guide table 


2 


350 
















Cut Coiirsea 


2\ 


311 
















6 


16 


21 


280 
















7^ 


19 


21 


255 
















8 


21 


3 


233 
















9 


24 


3i 


215 
















10 


27 


3^ 


200 
















11 


29 


3i 


187 
















12 


32 


4 


175 
















13 


35 


4i 


165 
















14 


38 


4^ 


156 




















41 


147 




















5 


140 




















5i 


133 




















5h 


127 




















51 


122 




















6 


117 


1500. 


















7 


100 


1333. 


1500. 
















8 


88 


1173. 


1320. 


1467. 














9 


78 


1040. 


1170. 


1300. 


1430. 












10 


70 


933. 


1050. 


1167. 


1283. 


1400. 










11 


64 


853. 


960. 


1067. 


1173. 


1280. 


1387. 








12 


58 


773. 


870. 


967. 


1063. 


1160. 


1257. 


1353. 






13 


54 


720. 


810. 


900. 


990. 


1080. 


1170. 


1260. 


1350. 




14 


50 


667. 


750. 


833. 


917. 


1000. 


1083. 


1167. 


1250. 


1330. 


15 


47 


627. 


705. 


783. 


862. 


940. 


1018. 


1097. 


1175. 


1253. 


16 


44 


587. 


660. 


733. 


807. 


880. 


953. 


1027. 


1100. 


1173. 


17 


41 


547. 


615. 


683. 


752. 


820. 


888. 


957. 


1025. 


1093. 


18 


39 


520. 


585. 


650. 


715. 


780. 


845. 


910. 


975. 


1040. 


19 


37 


493. 


555. 


616. 


678. 


740. 


802. 


863. 


925. 


987. 


20 


35 


467. 


525. 


583. 


642. 


700. 


758. 


817. 


875. 


933. 


21 


33 


440. 


495. 


550. 


605. 


660. 


715. 


770. 


825. 


8.80. 


22 


32 


427. 


480. 


533. 


587. 


640. 


693. 


747. 


800. 


853. 


23 


30 


400. 


450. 


500. 


550. 


600. 


650. 


700. 


750. 


800. 


24 


29 


387. 


435. 


483. 


532. 


580. 


628. 


677. 


725. 


773. 



78 



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The Science of Knitting 



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Production Table, Square Yards, Wales and Courses Known 79 



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80 The Science of Knitting 

Example. — How many square yards per hour will be produced 
by an 8 cut machine with 10 feeds making fabric with 17 wales 
and 22 courses per inch? The stitches per square inch are 17 X 
22 = 374. The constant in the table on page 79 at the intersec- 
tion of 8 cut and 10 feeds is 8145, which divided by 374 = 21.8, 
the square yards per hour, no lost time. 



Explanation of Square Yard Table for Use when the Number of 
Cylinder Needles, Revolutions per Minute and Feeds are 
Known, Page 8i 

This table is designed to give in compact form the production 
in square yards for varying conditions of speed, feeds, needles, 
and yarn. The only condition which is fixed is the stitch 
which is taken at 9.8 -y/No. per one foot of yarn for rib fabric 
and 19.6 VNo. for flat fabric. 

To use the table, multiply together the number of needles in 
the cylinder, the revolutions per minute, and the feeds. Select 
the number at the top nearest to this product and run down the 
column until opposite the yarn used, where will be found the 
square yards for 10 hours' actual running time. Discount this 
for the lost time, say 20 per cent for a rib body machine and 
10 per cent for a ribber or flat-work machine if the lost time is 
not known. 

Example. — How many square yards will be produced in ten 
hours under the following conditions? 

Needles in cylinder, 400 (8 cut, 16 inches). 

Revolutions per minute, 44. 

Feeds, 8. 

Yarn, No. 11 cotton! 

(The stitch used is 32.5 for rib fabric or 65 for flat fabric.) 

Multiply together. 

The needles, the revolutions per minute, and the feeds; 

400 X 44 X 8 = 140,800. 

The nearest number to this at the top of the table is 150,000, 
under which, opposite No. 11 yarn is 183.3. If a closer result is 

desired, multiply 183.3 by r^^ which gives 172. Discount 20 

per cent for lost time, which gives 137.5 square yards. 



Production, Square Yards 



81 



Production, Square Yards of Regular Cotton Single Thread Fabric 

For example see bottom of page 80 
For 10 hours actual runniug time when the number of cylinder needles, revo- 
lutions per jninute, and feeds are known. 







Cylinder needles X r.p.ra. X feeds 


Yarn 
No. 






























10000 


30000 


50000 


70000 


90000 


110000 


130000 


150000 


170000 


190000 


210000 


5 


26.87 


80.62 


134.40 


188.10 


241.90 


295.60 


349.40 


403.10 


456.9 


510.6 


564.4 


6 


22.40 


67.19 


112.00 


156.80 


201.50 


246.40 


291.20 


336.00 


380.8 


425.5 


470.3 


7 


19.20 


57.59 


'95.99 


134.40 


172.80 


211.20 


249.60 


288.00 


326.4 


364.8 


403.2 


8 


16.80 


50.40 


83.99 


117.60 


151.20 


184.80 


218.40 


252.00 


285.6 


319.2 


352.8 


9 


14.93 


44.79 


74.65 


104.50 


134.40 


164.20 


194.10 


224.00 


253.8 


283.7 


313.5 


10 


13.44 


40.31 


67.19 


94.06 


120.90 


147.80 


174.70 


201.60 


228.4 


255.3 


282.2 


11 


12.22 


36.65 


61.08 


85.52 


109.90 


134.40 


158.80 


183.30 


207.7 


232.1 


256.5 


12 


11.20 


33.59 


55.98 


78.38 


100.80 


123.20 


145.60 


168.00 


190.4 


212.7 


235.1 


13 


10.34 


31.01 


51.68 


72.36 


93.02 


113.70 


134.40 


155.00 


175.7 


196.4 


217.1 


14 


9.598 


28.79 


47.99 


67.18 


86.38 


105.60 


124.80 


144.00 


163.2 


182.4 


201.6 


15 


8.958 


26.87 


44.79 


62.70 


80.62 


98.54 


116.40 


134.40 


152.3 


170.2 


188.1 


16 


8.398 


25.20 


41.99 


58.79 


75.59 


92.39 


109.20 


126.00 


142.8 


159.6 


176.4 


17 


7.905 


23.71 


39.52 


55.33 


71.14 


86.96 


102.80 


118.60 


134.4 


150.2 


166.0 


18 


7.465 


22.40 


37.33 


52.26 


67.18 


82.12 


97.06 


112.00 


120.9 


141.8 


156.8 


19 


7.072 


21.22 


35.36 


49.50 


63.64 


77.80 


91.94 


106.10 


120.2 


134.4 


148.5 


20 


6.719 


20.16 


33.59 


47.03 


60.46 


73.90 


87.34 


100.80 


114.2 


127.7 


141.1 


21 


6.398 


19.20 


31.99 


44.79 


57.58 


70.38 


83.18 


95.98 


108.8 


121.6 


134.4 


22 


6.108 


18.32 


30.54 


42.76 


54.97 


67.19 


79.41 


91.63 


103.8 


116,0 


128.3 






Cylinder needles X r.p.m. X feeds 


Yarn 
No. 




























230000 


25000C 


27000( 


) 29000C 


310000 


330000 


350000 


370000 


390000 


410000 


5 


618.1 


671.9 


725. ( 


5 779.4 


833.1 


886.8 


940.6 


994.4 


1048.0 


1102.0 


6 


515.1 


555. S 


604.' 


7 649.5 


694.3 


739.1 


783.9 


828.7 


873.4 


918.2 


7 


441.5 


480. C 


518. r 


i 556.7 


595.1 


633.5 


672.0 


710.3 


748.7 


787.1 


8 


386.4 


420. C 


453. f 


) 487.2 


520.7 


554.3 


587.9 


621.6 


655.1 


688.7 


9 


343.4 


373.2 


403.] 


433. C 


462.8 


492.7 


522.5 


552.4 


582.2 


612.1 


10 


309.1 


335.9 


362. J 


i 389.7 


416.5 


443.4 


470.3 


497.2 


524.0 


550.9 


11 


281.0 


305.4 


329. J 


! 354.3 


378.7 


403.1 


427.6 


452.0 


476.4 


500.8 


12 


257.5 


279.9 


302. [ 


324.7 


347.1 


369.5 


391.9 


414.3 


436.7 


459.0 


13 


237.7 


258.4 


279.1 


299.8 


320.4 


341.1 


361.8 


382.4 


403.1 


423.8 


14 


220.8 


240.0 


259.1 


278.3 


297.5 


316.7 


335.9 


355.1 


374.3 


393.5 


15 


206.0 


223.9 


241. c 


259.8 


277.7 


295.6 


313.5 


331.4 


349.4 


367.2 


16 


193.2 


210.0 


226. J 


243.6 


260.4 


277.2 


294.0 


310.2 


327.5 


344.3 


17 


181.8 


197.6 


213.4 


229.2 


245.0 


260.9 


276.7 


292.5 


308.3 


324.1 


18 


171.7 


186.6 


201. e 


216.5 


231.4 


246.4 


261.3 


276.2 


291.1 


306.1 


19 


162.7 


176.8 


190. c 


205.1 


219.2 


233.4 . 


247.5 


261.7 


275.8 


290.0 


20 


154.5 


168.0 


181.4 


194.8 


208.3 


221.7 


235.1 


248.6 


262.0 


275.5 


21 


147.2 


160.0 


172.7 


185.6 


198.3 


211.1 


223.9 


236.7 


249.5 


262.3 


22 


140.5 


152.7 


164. S 


177.1 


189.5 


201.6 


201.6 


226.0 


238.2 


250.4 


Thista 


ble is 


5ased 


on: 





















Stitches per foot of yarn equal 9.8v'No. of the yarn for rib fabric and 
19.6VNo. of the yarn for flat fabric. 
Stitches per square inch of fabric equal 34.453 X No. of the yarn. 



82 



The Science of Knitting 



Rib-top Production Table — Explanation 

This table gives the production in dozen pairs of rib tops for 
single-feed ribbers running 700 diametral inches per minute; 
that is, a 3-inch running 700 ^ 3 = 233 r.p.m. If the two- 
speed drive is used, deduct 4 per cent for every tenth of tht 
time it is used. Deduction should also be made for lost time, 
in whatever proportion of the whole time it amounts to. 

To use the table count the courses per inch in the rib top 
in question; or if none is at hand, use the courses in the guide 
table. Suppose no sample is at hand, but that it is desired to 



Rib-top Table 




Rib-top Production 



83 



know how many dozen pairs of rib tops will be made under the 
following conditions: 

Cut 10. 

Courses (from table) 27. 

Length 15 inches. 

Diameter of machine 4|. 

Two-speed drive is used on low speed about | time. 

Lost time is estimated 10 per cent. 

Desired, the production in pairs of rib tops per 9-hour day. 



Rib-top Table 











Diameters: 


One feed 








3 


3i 


3^ 


3f 


4 


4i 


41 


41 


5 


51 


5* 


87.5 


80.8 


75.0 


•70.0 


65.6 


61.7 


58.3 


55.3 


52.5 


50.0 


■44.7 


75.0 


69 2 


64.3 


60.0 


56.2 


52.9 


50.0 


47.3 


45.0 


43.0 


40.9 


65.6 


60.6 


56.3 


52 5 


49.4 


46.3 


43.8 


41.4 


39.4 


37.5 


35.8 


58.3 


53.8 


50.0 


46.7 


43.8 


41.2 


38.9 


36.8 


35.0 


33.3 


31.8 


52.5 


48.5 


45.0 


42.0 


39.4 


37.1 


35.0 


33.2 


31.5 


30.0 


28.6 


47.7 


44.1 


40.9 


38.2 


35.8 


33.7 


31.8 


30.1 


28.6 


27.3 


26.0 


43.8 


40.4 


37.5 


35.0 


32.8 


30.9 


29.2 


27.6 


26.2 


23.3 


23.9 


40.4 


37.3 


34.6 


32.3 


30-3 


28.5 


26.9 


25.5 


24.2 


23.1 


22.0 


37.5 


34.6 


32.2 


30.0 


28.1 


26.5 


25.0 


23.7 


22.5 


21.4 


20.5 


35.0 


32.3 


30.0 


28.0 


26.3 


24.7 


23.3 


22.1 


21.0 


20.0 


19.1 


32.8 


30.3 


28.1 


26.2 


24.6 


23.2 


21.9 


20.7 


19.7 


18.8 


17.9 


30.9 


28.5 


26.5 


24.7 


23.2 


21.8 


20.6 


19.5 


18.5 


17.6 


16.8 


29.2 


26.9 


25.0 


23.3 


21.9 


20.6 


19.4 


18.4 


17.5 


16.7 


15.9 


27.6 


25.5 


23.7 


22.1 


20.7 


19.5 


18.4 


17.4 


16.6 


15.8 


15.1 


26.3 


24.2 


22.5 


21.0 


19.7 


18.5 


17.5 


16.6 


15.8 


15.0 


14.3 


23.9 


23.1 


21.4 


20.0 


18.8 


17.6 


16.7 


15.8 


15.0 


14.3 


13.6 


23.8 


22.0 


20.5 


19.1 


17.9 


16.8 


15.9 


15.1 


14.3 


13.6 


13.0 


22.8 


20.6 


19.6 


18.3 


17.1 


16.1 


15.2 


14.4 


13.7 


13.0 


12.5 


21.9 


20.2 


18.8 


17.5 


16.4 


15.4 


14.6 


13.8 


13.1 


12.5 


11 9 


21.0 
20.2 


19.4 


18.0 


16.8 


15.8 


14.8 


14.0 


13.3 


12.6 


12.0 


11.5 


18.6 


17.3 


16.2 


15.1 


14.3 


13.5 


12.8 


12.1 


11.5 


11.0 


19.4 


17.9 


10.7 


15.6 


14.6 


13.7 


13.0 


12.3 


•11.7 


11.1 


10.6 


18.8 


17.3 


16.1 


15.0 


14.1 


13.2 


12.5 


11.8 


11.3 


10.7 


10 2 


18.1 


16.7 


15.5 


14 5 


13.6 


12.8 


12.1 


11.4 


10.9 


10.3 


9.9 


17.5 
13.1 


16.2 


15.0 


14.0 


13.1 


12.4 


11.7 


11.1 


10.5 


10.0 


9.5 


12.1 


11.2 


10.5 


9.8 


9.3 


8.8 


8.3 


7.9 


7.5 


7.2 


10.5 


9.7 


9.0 


84 


7.9 


7.4 


7.0 


6.6 


5.5 


6.0 


5.7 


8.8 


8.1 


7.5 


7.0 


6.6 


6.2 


5.8 


5.5 


5.2 


5.0 


4.8 


7.5 


6.9 


6.4 


6.0 


5.6 


5.3 


5.0 


4.7 


4.5 


4.3 


4.1 


5.6 


5.4 


5.0 


4.7 


4.4 


4.1 


3.9 


3.7 


3.5 


3.3 


3.2 


4.8 


4.4 


4.1 


3.8 


3.6 


3 4 


3.2 


3.0 


2.9 


2.7 


2.6 



Dozeu pairs per 9 hours actual time. 



84 The Science of Knitting 

Follow down the column marked inches to 15, the length of 
the top; then down the diagonal column to the left to 27, the 
number of courses; then horizontally to the right to the column 
headed 4^, the diameter oj-the ribber, where is 8.8 the number 
of dozen pairs of rib tops. Deduct 8 per cent for two-speed 
drive, which is 0.35fleaving 8.45, and then deduct 10 per cent 
for lost time, which is 0.85, leaving 8 dozen pairs, in round 
numbers, which is the production for a nine-hour day. 

RELATIVE PRODUCTION OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF KNIT- 
TING MACHINES 

The importance of the fabric formulas is illustrated by the 
light which they throw on the relative production of different 
kinds of knitting machines. 

The formulas show not only the actual corresponding pro- 
duction for the conditions assumed, but also the principles by 
which comparison may be made for any other conditions. 

Results according to the formulas will be considered first, and 
the general considerations will be given afterward. 

Primarily it is best to consider the production per feed, since 
practice varies so much in regard to the number of feeds used 
with a given diameter of machine that no other unquestionable 
ground could be found. Of course, the relative speed, yarn and 
stitch have to be assumed. They are discussed quite fully in 
different places in this book, but are roughly summarized here 
to avoid confusion. 

One obstacle in the way of comparisons formerly was the 
absence of a connecting link between any two different kinds 
of machine. For instance, if the same number of needles per 
inch was considered, there was a question about the fairness of 
such a basis due to the fact that different yarn was used on the 
different machines for the same number of needles per inch, and 
since the relative size of the yarn was not known, the question 
was unanswerable. The length of the stitch had but little atten- 
tion. But the yarn-cut rules and stitch rules provide the missing 
links, so that comparison may be made on the basis of either the 
same cut or of the same yarn, both of which comparisons are 
necessary for a comprehensive understanding of the subject. 

The table gives: (1) the formulas just as they appear in the 
tabulations of formulas for regular fabrics; (2) the actual pro- 
duction per feed per ten hours for 12 cut and 24 yarn, a suitable 



Relative Production of Different Types of Knitting Machines 85 



Relative Production of Latch-needle Rib Machine and Spring-needle Loop- 
wheel Machine Under Following Relative Conditions 





Relative yarn 

No. for same 

cut 


R.p.m. of 20 

in. cyl. 


Cyl. stitches 
per foot of yarn 


Latch-needle rib 


3 (about) 

1 


35 

50 


1 

1.16 


Spring-needle loop-wheel 



Comparison. One Rib Feed to One Flat Feed 



Pounds 
production 



Square 

yards 

production 



Same varn 



Same cut. 



Same varn. 



Same cut. 



Rule 



Rib 



131_ 
No. 



Cut 



Flat 



161 
No. 



786 


2867 


Cut2 


Cut2 


72.39 


178 


VNo. 


VNo. 


177.31 


750.6 



Cut 



24 yarn 

12 cut (18 gauge) 
24 yarn 



12 cut (18 gauge) 



Actual 



Rib 



5.46 



5.46 



14.78 



14.78 



Flat 



6.71 



19.9 



36.3 



62.5 



Propor- 
tion 



Rib 



Flat 



1.23 



3.65 



2.46 



4.23 



Comparison. Two Rib Feeds to One Flat Feed 



Pounds 
production 



Square 

yards 

production 



Same yarn . . 



Same cut . . . 



Same yarn . . 



Same cut . . 



161 
No. 

2867 



262 
No. 

1572 
Cut2 

144.78 178 
>/No. VNo. 



Cut2 



354.62 



Cut 



750.6 



Cut 



24 yarn 

12 cut (18 gauge) 
24 yarn 

12 cut (18 gauge) 



10.92 



10.92 



29.56 



29.56 



6.71 



19.9 



36.3 



62.5 



.62 



1.83 



1.23 



2.12 



86 The Science of Knitting 

combination for the latch-needle rib machine; and (3) the 
relative production, considering that of the rib machine as 1. 
Then all this is repeated with the production of the rib feed 
doubled, in order to show roughly the relative production per 
machine (cylinder), since in practice the number of feeds used 
per machine is about two to one, in favor of the rib machine. 

It should be remembered that when the yarn is alike the cut 
of the machines is different, and when the cut is alike the yarn 
is different; so when 24 yarn is the basis of comparison, the rib 
machine is 12 cut and the loop-wheel machine 31 gauge, whereas 
when the cut is 12 (18 gauge), the yarn on the loop-wheel machine 
is No. 8 and on the rib machine 24. 

Not only the actual production, but the proportional pro- 
duction also may be obtained from the formulas, as is illustrated 
by the pounds production per feed for yarn the same (24), 
Comparing rib to fiat, the formula constants are 131 to 161, the 
actual pounds are 5.46 to 6.71, and the relative pounds are 1 to 
1.23; these are all in the same proportion. 

The comparison of production per machine shows the rib 
machine to lead in pounds for the same yarn as 100 to 62, but 
to fall behind in the yardage as 100 to 183. The loop-wheel 
machine leads for the same cut both in pounds and yards. 

Although the comparison just made is useful when the 
formulas fit the conditions, it is desirable to understand the 
reasons why the production of one type of machine differs from 
another. The general principles may be shown by taking the 
production of one machine and modifying it according to the 
given conditions until it shows the production of the other 
machine. For simplicity the reduction will be made from the 
latch-needle rib machine to the loop-wheel flat-work machine. 

Although the factors involved are comparatively simple, 
still confusion is Hkely to result if the production in pounds is not 
considered separately from the production in square yards, so 
the production in pounds will be considered first, under the two 
general cases: (1) the same yarn; (2) the same cut. Then the 
production in square yards will be considered in the same order. 

Relative Production of Different Types of Knitting Machines 

per Feed 

Latch-needle Rib Compared to Loop-wheel Spring-needle Flat- 
work Machine 

Pounds, yarn the same. 



ilelative Production of Different Types of Knitting Machines 87 



Factors which Affect the Difference in Production 

Assumed 35 to 50 or 1 to 1.43 



Rib to Flat 



Needle Velocity. 

Length of yarn 
fed in equal 
needle travel 
Cut 

Stitches 



Formulas ?:M?5VNo. to 
9.798 VNo. 



4.2165 VNo. 
19.596 VNo. 



or 1 to .86 



Relative Production Calculation 

f\"elocity) (Length yarn) 



Rib. 



1 X 



1.43 
1 



X 



0.86 
1 



Pounds. Cut the Same. 
Additional Factor. 



= 1.23 pounds production per 
feed of fiat to 1 of rib 
for yarn the same. 



Rib to Flat , Diameter of Yarn . Formulas . 



to 



8.573 Cut ^" 4.98 Cut 
or 1 to 1.72. 



Relative Production Calculation 



(Velocity)(Length yarn)(Dia. yarn squared) 

Rib. ix^x5fxHBxif 



= 3.65 pounds pro- 
duction per feed of 
flat to 1 of rib for 
cut the same. 



The relative velocity needs no explanation, since it is clear 
that if all other conditions are the same, a machine which runs 
faster than another will produce more fabric. 

Now in this case there is one factor other than the velocity 
to be considered, which factor is the relative length of yarn 
which is drawn in by each machine for an equal needle travel. 
It is evident that if machines A and B are of the same cut and 
have the same needle velocity, but A is running at 30 stitches 
per foot of yarn and B at 40 stitches, then B has to run farther 
in order to use a foot of yarn, and the distance it has to run as 
compared to A is as 40 is to 30. Therefore, when each runs an 
equal distance, the relative lengths of yarn consumed will be as 
1 ^ 30 is to 1 -T- 40, which is the same as 40 is to 30. Conse- 
quently, the length of yarn consumed by two machines of the same 
cut and needle velocity is inversely proportional to their respective 
stitches per foot of yarn. 

If the machines have the same needle velocity and stitches 



88 The Science of Knitting 

per foot of yarn, but A has a finer cut, then A will draw the 
yarn in faster, since it will draw more stitches during an equal 
travel. And since the machines to be compared are frequently 
of different cut, it is desirable to have a means of comparison 
which will take into consideration both the stitches per foot of 
yarn and the cut. This means can be worked out as follows. 
The stitches per foot divided by the cut give the distance in 
inches which each machine must travel in order to draw in an 
equal length of yarn. Therefore, the reciprocal of this, that is, 
the cut divided by the stitches, gives the relative length of yarn 
drawn in for an equal needle travel. Consequently, the length 
of yarn consumed by each of two machines of the same needle velocity 
hut different cuts is proportional to the cut divided hy the stitches per 
foot of yarn, respectively. .., 

The length-of-yarn factor used is worked out according to the 
last statement, which factor together with the velocity factor 
shows that when a latch-needle rib machine produces one pound 
per feed a loop-wheel flat-work machine, using the same yarn, 
produces 1.23 pounds. This was shown before by a comparison 
of the results obtained with the formulas, but this method 
shows how it may be determined without the formulas, provided 
the relative cuts, stitches, and velocities are known. 

When the yarn used on the two machines is different, the 
problem is just the same as before with the exception that the 
added factor of diameter of yarn squared has to be used since 
the machine using the heavier yarn will produce more in the 
proportion of the square of the diameter. 

Square yards. — Yarn the same. (See Factors, page 87.) 

Relative Production Calculation 

(Velocity) (Width of Fabric) 

1 43 1 72 

Rib. 1 X -^ — X ~— =2.46 square-yards production 

^ ■'• per feed of flat to 1 of 

rib for yarn the same. 

Cut the same. 
Relative Production Calculation 

(Velocity) (Dia. yarn squared) 

Rib. 1 X -J— X ~r- X ~r- = 4.23 square-yards produc- 
■'• ^ ■'• tion per feed of flat 

to 1 of rib for cut 
the same. 



Weight Per Square Yard Formula — Derivation 



89 



The following tabulation shows the method_of working out the 
relative production in square yards. 

It is noticeable at once that the length of yarn is not a factor 
in the square-yards production, but that the machine velocity 
and yarn diameter are factors. The reason for this may be 
understood with the aid of the following tabulation of the rel- 
ative machine conditions for the two different cases. 





Dia. 
cyl. 


Cut 


Dia. 

yarn 


Num- 
ber of 
needles 


R.p.m. 


Width 
of fabric 


Yarn same ( ?;}\ 

( Flat 

Cut same \^}^ 

( Flat 


1 
1 

1 
1 


1 

1.72 
1 
1 


1 
1 
1 

1.72 


1 

1.72 

1 

1 


35 
50 
35 
50 


1 

1.72 
1 
1.72 



Evidently the diameter of the machine does not change, but 
since, for yarn the same, the cut does change, the number of 
needles must also change. Consequently, for the same yarn the 
machine with the more needles makes the wider fabric, and with 
the same number of needles the machine with the heavier 
yarn makes the wider fabric. This shows how it is that the yarn 
diameter affects the square-yards production. When the yarn 
IS the same, the fabric is wider in proportion to the number of 
needles, which is proportional to the cut, which is proportional to 
the diameter of yarn which the machine would use with an equal 
cut. Therefore, the square-yards production of the machine 
with the finer cut is increased in proportion to the diameter of 
yarn which is used with an equal cut. 

But when the cut is the same, the flat machine uses yam 
which, according to the rule for corresponding fabrics that the 
dimensions of an individual stitch are proportional to the 
diameter of the yarn, makes the fabric both wider and longer 
for an equal number of stitches; consequently, the square-yards 
production is increased in proportion to the square of the diam- 
eter of the yarn. 

WEIGHT PER SQUARE YARD FORMULA —DERIVATION 

The weight in pounds of a square yard of cloth is evidently 
the number of stitches in a yard divided by the number of 
stitches in a pound. The number of stitches in a yard is: 



90 



The Science of Knitting 






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92 The Science of Knitting 

Wales per inch X courses per inch X 1,296 (square inches per 
square yard) q) 

The number of stitches per pound is: 

Cotton number X stitches per foot of yarn X 2,520 (feet in 
cotton No.) (2) 

As stated above, the weight per yard is (1) -^ (2). Therefore, 

Weight per yard = Wales per inch X courses per inch _ 

Cotton No. X stitches per foot X 1.944 

W X C 
or, weight per yard = j^^-^^_^^. 

Table — Weight per Square Yard of Plain Ribbed Fabric 

Pages 90 and 91 

Excluding stitch distortion, the weight per square yard is 
dependent on the number of the yarn and on the stitches per 
foot of yarn. This table is worked out for the ranges of such 
conditions which are likely to be encountered. 

The weights in heavy type are those for regular ribbed fabrics. 
Those to the right are lighter and those to the left are heavier 
than the regular fabrics. 

Many uses of this table will be at once evident. For instance, 
the question frequently arises, what yarn is required to dupli- 
cate fabric of a given weight per square yard? The table shows 
this, and shows as well the stitches per foot at which the yarn 
must be run. The next question is, what cut is advisable either 
for the selection of new machinery or for verifying the adapta- 
bility of machinery at hand? Suppose that the required weight 
is obtainable with number 24 yarn. The use of 24 yarn under 
regular conditions calls for 48 stitches per foot of yarn as the 
weight in heavy type shows. But the cut is one-fourth of the 
stitches per foot of yarn, so the cut for good running conditions 
with latch-needle machinery is 48 ^ 4 = 12. Similarly the cut 
for other conditions may readily be found. If the cut so found 
is not available, then the yarn may be changed to conform to 
some cut which is available, all of which may be readily and 
quickly determined from the table. 

This table also shows the weight of flat fabric for the given 
yarn, but the weight is for two square yards and the stitches are 
for half a foot of yarn. For instance, regular flat fabric made 
from No. 20 yarn weighs 0.4044 pound per hvo square yards 
and the stitches per six inches of yarn are 43.8. 



Weight per Square Yard Formula — Transformations 



93 



X 



X 



a; CD 



c3 

cr 



X >> 



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ft 



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ft 



X 

o3 



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o 
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X 



a 

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X 



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o 
o 

ft 

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3 



94 



The Science of Knitting 




Two-thread Knitting 95 

DETERMINING WEIGHT PER SQUARE YARD BY WEIGHING 

A convenient method of determining the weight per square 
yard when it cannot be calculated is to cut the fabric by means 
of a circular die, say If inches in diameter, and weigh the cut- 
ting. The area of the disc cut with this size die is 2.405 inches. 

The weight per square inch = , and since there 

are 1296 square inches in a square yard, the 

w • u^ A Wt. of disc ^^ ,_^_ 

Weight per square yard = — — X 1296 

= Wt. of disc X 538.8. 
The balance may be graduated in any unit, such as grains or 
pounds, as long as it is remembered that the result is in the 
same unit. As a rule it is convenient to use the pound, both 
because the goods are generally classified by the number of 
pounds per dozen, and because the cotton yarn unit of weight 
is the pound. However, convenience is the principal guide in 
selecting both the unit of weight and the size of the disc. When 
accuracy is required, several discs should be cut at one time, 
in order to get a greater area to weigh, as well as a better aver- 
age, if the cuttings are from different portions of the fabric, as 
they may readily be if the fabric is folded with that intention. 
Also a comparison of the weights of these different discs shows 
the variation in the weight of the fabric. Of course, when a 
sample of the fabric is at hand and the yarn and stitches per 
foot are known, the weight per square yard may be calculated 
by use of the formula, so that there is no need of weighing; 
but when the yarn number or the stitches per foot are not 
known, either one may be obtained from the formula (trans- 
formed) after the weight per yard is determined by weighing. 

TWO-THREAD KNITTING 

Advantages. — Among the advantages of two-thread knitting 
over single-thread may be mentioned the following: 

1. The possibility of obtaining heavier fabric on any one cut, 
since two threads may be knit more readily than a single thread 
of the weight of the two threads. 

2. Decreased trouble in knitting, owing to the facts that knots 
and bunches are smaller, that weak places in one yarn are not 



^^ The Science of Knitting 

likely to part (since the other yarn carries the load), and that 
even if one yarn does part, the other generally keeps the fabric 
on the needles. 

3. Improved appearance of the fabric, since inequalities in the 
yarn tend to compensate, and to make clearer work than one yarn 
of as good quality as the two yarns. 

4. More durable fabric, since both threads in a stitch are not 
80 likely to break as a single thread, even though the single thread 
be somewhat larger. 

Disadvantages. — Among the disadvantages are the following: 

1. When the yarn is of the same kind, the cost is greater, since 
double spinning is required. 

2. When the machine continues running after one thread 
breaks, a large piece of fabric may be spoiled. 

3. The number of threads is doubled, so the stoppage for lost 
ends is doubled. 

4. Less elasticity. 

Plating. — If the work is plated, i.e., if one thread shows on 
the face of the goods and the other does not, then there are the 
further advantages that the appearance of the goods is much 
smoother, and that the thread which does not show may be of 
less expensive material than the other. 

Generally Advisable to Plate Two-thread Work. — The 
smooth appearance is due to the avoidance of twisted threads 
in the stitches. Therefore, it is advisable to plate two-thread 
work, whether it is required to hide one thread or not 

Conditions for Plating. - The conditions for plating are to keep 
the threads from twisting around each other before entering the 
needle and in a fixed relative position after they enter it. If these 
requirements are remembered, the principal difficulties of plating 
are surmountable by the exercise of observation and judgment 
Testing with One Feed and Contrasting Colors. - A good plan 
for adjusting the machine is to start only one feed with the kind 
and size of yarn to be used, as nearly as possible, but in contrast- 
ing colors, say black and white. It will be at once evident which 
thread comes on the face, and if it is not the right one, it may 
be transposed; also the quality of the plating will be very clear 
If it is poor, the machine should be turned very slowly and the 
action of the yarn observed in order to locate the place where the 
yarns twist around each other. 



Two-thread Knitting 



97 



Locating Causes of Defects. — As a rule the twisting is over- 
come or reduced by keeping the yarns from touching each other 
up to the time they enter the needles, and after that by keeping 
control of them, either by tension or otherwise. 

Separating the Threads in Feeding. — The first thing to do 
then with any machine is to conduct the yarn to the needles by 
separate paths, for if two 
yarns follow the same 
path, they are sure to 
twist around each other. 
Even when they enter the 
needles they should do so 
through separate holes in 
the guide or carrier; or if 
there is not room for two 
holes, as is sometimes the 
case with fine-gauge loop- 
wheel machinery, the two 
threads should be kept 
separate by being guided 
to the hole at different 
angles, or by some other 
such means. 

Machines Considered. 
After the yarn has reached 
the needles the treatment 
depends very much on the 
type of machine which is 
used. The spring-needle 
flat-work machines and 
latch-needle rib machine 
are considered here. 

Illustration i. — Illus- 
tration 1 shows a diagram 
of a spring-beard needle 
with the old loop about to cast off over a new double loop con- 
sisting of a black and white thread. As shown, the illustration 
applies to vertical-needle machines, such as the loop-wheel 
machine, but it may be turned so that the needle lies horizon- 
tally with the beard up, when it serves for most machines of the 
jack-sinker type. 




Illustration 1. 
Double-thread loops on spring needle. The 
thread in the head of the needle appears on 
the back of the fabric. 



98 



The Science of Knitting 



.>. ufTu ^^^^^ ^" ^P"^S ^^^^1^- - It ^ill be noticed that 
the black thread, cotton say, is in the head of the needle, and that 
the white one, say wool, is under it (behind it, if the needle is 
horizontal); also that in the up-coming stitch the black or cotton 
thread is on the back. If the positions of the threads in the heads 
of the needles are reversed, then they will be reversed in the fabric 
also Therefore, it is not only necessary to feed the yarns to the 
needles in the correct relative position but to keep them there 
which latter requirement is sometimes difficult, especially with 
loop-wheel machines. 

Yarn Difficulties. — The composition and twist of the yam are 
sources of trouble, so the most used materials, namely wool and 
cotton, should be considered. In the first place there is the 
tendency of the yarn to untwist, which tendency is generally 
more pronounced in wool than in cotton. Then in the loop-wheel 
machine there is a rolling motion imparted by the sinker-bur 
blade which increases the tendency to twist. 

Rolling by Rotary Sinker. - Moreover, there is opportunity to 
twist, not only when the yarns are feeding over the sinker, but 
after they get under the needle beard, for the cramp of the needle 
must be sufficiently open to receive small bunches at least, so it 
cannot clasp the yarn tightly enough to hold it securely in place 
Helps to Spring-needle Plating. - Some of the helps to good 
plating on spring needles may be understood from the preceding- 
that IS, needle cramp as close as is permissible, yarns about of a 
size, and anythmg which will prevent twistmg of the yarns in the 
uncontrolled space between the sinker and the cast-off. 

Treatment of Yam. — Among the artificial means of preventing 
twisting IS deadening the yarn by emulsionizing, dampening 
oilmg, etc.; but a better way, although not always available, is to 
use a gauge of machine as fine as is consistent with good running 
so that the stitch may be fairly long, since the loops keep their 
position much better when the gauge is well filled and the loop 
is long. 

Short Stitches Twist the Most. - This is illustrated by the 
custom of using eveners or dividers on loop-wheel machines which 
knit fine yarn with a tight stitch, and of not using them with 
heavy yarn and a long stitch. 

Silk and Worsted. -When it is impractical to use yarn of 
about the same size, as is generally the case in knitting a silk 
face and a worsted back, where the cost of an equal-size silk yarn 



Two-thread Knitting 99 

would be prohibitive, then deadening the yarn must often be 
resorted to. 

Casting-ofE from Spring Needle. — Suppose that the two 
threads are kept in the correct relative position until they get to 
the cast-off. This is one of the troublesome places, especially in 
loop- wheel knitting. By reference to Illustration 1, it will be 
seen that the old loop has to move up over the new double one 
without disturbing its own structure or the relative position of 
the yarns in the new loop. With a needle as closely cramped as 
the one shown the new loop is comparatively safe, but such a close 
cramp is impractical; moreover, as the old loop comes up, the 
black thread on the back is likely to be rolled through upon the 
face by the friction against the new loop. This is aggravated 
not only by the upward pull of the fabric, but by the crude 
action of the cast-off blade. 

Comparison of Jack Cast-off and Rotary Cast-off. — Conse- 
quently, machines in which the fabric draws at right angles to 
the needles and in which jack cast-offs are used, do better plating 
as far as casting-off is concerned. Moreover, they do better work 
as far as sinking the stitch is concerned, since they are generally 
equipped with jack sinkers which place the yarn in position and 
then retire direc4;ly, instead of retiring with a rolling motion as 
does the fixed bur blade. One important factor which counts in 
favor of the plating on jack-sinker machines is practice, for where 
jack-sinker machines are used two-thread fabrics are much more 
common, so that jack-sinker knitters have opportunity to become 
more expert in this kind of work. 

Two Sinker Burs. — Before leaving the loop-wheel machine 
mention should be made of the use of two sinkers for plating. 
Owing to the fact that the needle drives the sinker bur, it is 
inadvisable to overload the latter, and since two-thread wotk is 
generally made heavier than single-thread work of the same gauge, 
it is not uncommon to divide the work of sinking between two 
burs, in which case the first to feed the needle carries the thread 
which goes on the back of the fabric. 

Short Stitch for Concealed Yam., — This practice enables mak- 
ing the stitch of the back thread tighter than that of the face 
thread, which is frequently done and seems to be warranted by 
the evidently shorter path occupied by the thread on the back of 
the fabric. 

With two sinkers the feed occupies additional space, so that 



100 



The Science of Knitting 



the number of feeds per cyhnder is more restricted; and there 
is increased danger of the yarn dropping out of the needles 
owing to the increased distance from the first sinker to the cast-off; 
but there is the advantage that with differently colored yarns, 
checks and vertical stripes may be made by blocking certain 
spaces in the face sinker, which floats the face thread on the 
back of the fabric and lets the back color show through on the 
face. 




Illustration 2. 

Double-thread loops on latch needle. The thread nearest the point of the 

hook is hidden in the fabric. The dial needle is not shown. 



Illustration 2. — Illustration 2 shows a latch needle which 
has just drawn a double loop for ribbing and which is about 
to clear the old loop over the new loop. 

Position of Thread in Latch Needle. — It will be noticed that 
in this case the thread which is hidden is toward the latch, or 
outside, as the needle generally stands; that this thread is hidden 
between the back and the face instead of being left exposed on 
the back; and that its path is much shorter than that of the 



Twist in Flat Knit Fabric Made With SeK-feeding Needles 101 

other thi'ead, which probably accounts for the practice of using 
tension on it in order to improve the plating; although it is 
doubtful if much difference can be made in the length of yarn 
fed, since the construction of the machine makes nearly equal 
lengths imperative. 

Two Holes in Carrier. — A good way of keeping the yarns 
apart before they reach the needles is to use two holes in the 
carrier, one in the usual position feeding to the inside, and the 
other feeding out of the bottom of the carrier. In this case it 
is advisable to withdraw the dial needle sooner than is usual, 
in order to avoid the danger of catching the dial latch in the 
hole in the bottom of the carrier. With the threads separated 
in this way good plating of the cylinder stitches is obtained. 

Plating Inside of Rib Fabric. — If plating of the dial stitches 
also is desired, the tension must be kept on the loops with proper 
cam arrangement until the dial stitches are cleared. If this re- 
quirement is met, the yarn to be hidden will slide up ii^to the 
head of the dial needle and occupy the position nearest the 
latch just as it does in the cylinder needle. 

Tracing Trouble. — The causes of defective plating may 
frequently be located from an examination of the fabric con- 
taining the defectSs Reversal of the yarn before it gets into the 
needles is generally indicated by a streak along a course. Re- 
versal in clearing the stitch is generally indicated by appear- 
ance of the back thread at the edge of the wales at irregular 
intervals, except when the needle has something to do with 
the trouble, when the wale will show the defect throughout its 
length. 

TWIST IN FLAT KNIT FABRIC MADE WITH SELF-FEEDING 

NEEDLES 

The yarn generally comes to the knitter on cones. So the 
subject of twist begins for him with the cone. It will be con- 
ceded that the yarn on this cone has a certain amount of twist, 
either right-hand or left-hand as the case may be. It does not 
matter whether part of that twist was put into the yarn in con- 
ing it or not. This is as true of a bobbin as it is of a cone. 

Right-hand Twist. — Right-hand twist is such that if the yarn 
could be turned into metal, it would look and act like a right- 
hand screw; that is, by turning it into a board in the direc- 
tion of the hands of a clock it would draw itself into the wood. 



102 The Science of Knitting 

Motion in this direction is called clockwise because it is like 
that of the hands of a clock. 

Left-hand Twist. — Yarn with left-hand twist, if solidified, 
would have to be turned in the opposite direction in order to 
make it enter the board, which direction is called anti-clockwise 
because it is opposed to that of the hands of a clock. 

Point of View does not Affect Direction of Twist. — Turning 
the yarn end for end does not alter the appearance of the twist, 
so its direction can always be recognized. 

Extent of Twist. — The extent of the twist is designated by 
the number of turns per inch, just as is that of a screw thread. 




Illustration 1. 



Strip of paper pulled lengthwise from a pencil on which it had been coiled 
in an anti-clockwise direction. The twist in the paper is right-hand, and 
there are as many twists as there were coils. Similarly, right-hand twist 
is put into yarn when it is pulled off a cone on which it was wound in an 
anti-clockwise direction. 

Suppose that the piece of yarn is one inch long and has no twist. 
Then if one end is held and the other is given five complete 
revolutions, the yarn twist is five to the inch. When released, 
the yarn will shorten somewhat, so that the twist of that par- 
ticular piece will be more than five to the inch since then there 
will be less than an inch of yarn. The actual twist of this piece 
of yarn or of any piece is the number of complete turns in a 
given length divided by that length. For instance, if there are 
twenty turns in two inches, the twist is 20 -t- 2, or 10 to the inch. 
Determining Extent of Twist. — A convenient method of 
determining the number of turns is to cut a known length, say 
two inches, and hold one end while the other end is untwisted 
and each turn is counted until the strands are straight. The 
number of turns divided by the length gives the extent of the 
twist. 



Twist in Flat Knit Fabric Made With Self-feeding Needles 103 

Twist of Yarn is Affected by Delivery from Package. — Con- 
sider that the yarn is on the knitting machine, but not yet 
threaded to run into the needles. As it comes off the cone its 
extent of twist is changed. Take a pencil and roll a strip of 
paper around it. Then draw the strip off the pencil endwise 
as shown in Illustration 1. The strip will have as many twists 
in it as there were turns around the pencil and the direction of 
the twist will depend on the du-ection in which the paper was 
rolled. Stand the pencil with its' point upw^ard, and regard it 
from the point. Then, as is shown, the paper was wound anti- 
clockwise, and, evidently, the twist put in the strip is right-hand. 

How Cones are Wound. — Now, yarn is generally wound on 
cones as this strip of paper was wound on the pencil, so when 
yarn is drawn off from the nose of a cone, it is given one right- 
handed twist for every complete turn around the cone. Con- 
sequently, if the yarn already had right-hand twist, that is 
increased, and, conversely, if it had left-hand twist, th^t is 
reduced. 

How Bobbins are Wound. — Bottle bobbins from upright 
winders are generally wound in the direction opposite to that 
of the cone. Consequently, when yarn unwmds from a bottle 
bobbin from the ordmary winder, left-hand twist is put into it 
to the extent of one turn for every length around the bobbin. 
If the yarn is right-hand twist, then that is reduced, whereas 
if it is left-hand twist, it is increased. 

Illustration 2. — Illustration 2 shows a bottle bobbin and a 
cone and how the yarn unwinds from each. The arrows en- 
circlmg the yarn show the direction of the twist which is put 
into the yarn by the unwinding, provided the free end of tlie 
yarn is kept from turning. From this it follows that the yarn 
near the cone or bobbin is actually twisted in the reverse direc- 
tion of that shown by the arrows. If this is not perfectly clear, 
reference may be made to Illustration 1 which shows how the 
yarn is twisted coming from the cone. The yarn coming from 
the bobbin is twisted in the reverse direction. It should be 
noted that one turn of twist in the yarn is made for each com- 
plete turn of yarn around the bobbin, or cone. The average 
diameter of these packages is about four inches, so one average 
turn around the package is roughly one foot. 

Feeding the Yam Makes it Revolve. — Now, thread the yarn 
into a machine with self-feeding needles, such as latch-needle 



104 



The Science of Knitting 



machines for fiat work, rib work or hosiery. It will be found 
that when the yarn is running into the needles, it revolves in the 
direction in which a corresponding screw would revolve when 
being screwed into a piece of wood. In other words, yarn with 
right-hand twist turns clockwise when running from the ob- 
server toward the machine, and left-hand-twist yarn revolves 



A 



Direction of twist 
caused ty unwinding 
i,e, left handed 




Direction of 
twist caused 
by unwinding 
i.e. right handed 




Illustration 2. 



anti-clockwise. Moreover, the rate of turning is quite rapid, 
sometimes amounting to one turn in less than an inch of the 
yarn travel. 

Yam Twist Most Important in Making it Revolve. — From 
this it is evident that the influence of the twist of the yarn itself 
has much more to do with its revolving when entering the 
machine than the direction of its unwinding from the cone. 

Illustration of Yarn-feeding Conditions. — The explanation of 
this may be determined by considering the conditions and a 
somewhat similar case. The yarn is drawn into the old loop at 
the rate of about five feet per second. For a similar case, sup- 
pose a wire cable to be inserted in a snugly fitting hole in a 



Twist in Flat Knit Fabric Made With Self-feeding Needles 105 

piece of wood and then pulled through from the farther side at 
the rate of five feet per second. Of course, the cable would re- 
volve in the direction dictated by its twist. That is, a cable 
with right-hand twist, viewed from the entering side of the 
board, would revolve clockwise, and one with left-hand twist 
would revolve anti-clockwise. 

To carry the illustration still further, suppose that instead of 
drawing the cable through a closely fitting hole in a board it be 




Illustration 3. 



Illustration of loop distortion caused by the twist in the yam. Owing to 
the inclination of the fibers, the portion marked B slides forward in the 
loop E in front of loop A. Consequently, loop E is farther forward in the 
drawing than loop D, so that in the fabric loop E is higher than loop D 
and causes left-hand twist in the fabric. Therefore, the twist of the fabric 
matches the twist of the yarn. 



Then the rope 



irawn through a closely fitting loop in a rope, 
svould tend to twist the cable as just described. 

Rule for Revolution of Yarn in Feeding. — Consequently, when 
^arn is drawn into a stitch, it isTevolved according to its twist. 

Illustration 3 shows the influence of the twist on the revolution 



106 



The Science of Knitting 




A. Normal loops. 




B. Loops obtained with left-hand twist yarn, and caus- 
ing left-hand twist fabric. 




Loops obtained with right-hand twist yarn, and 
causing right-hand twist fabric. 

Illustration 4. 



Twist in Flat Knit Fabric Made With Self-feeding Needles 107 

of the yarn as it enters the machine. The hook of the needle has 
just drawn a new loop through an old one. The yarn has left- 
hand twist as is shown. The part of the loop which entered the 
needles first (A) is back of the part which entered last (B), which 
was drawn in at a velocity of about five feet per second and had 
to drag a considerable length through the old loop, whereas the 
other side had but little, if any, dragging to do. Close observation 
will show that the direction of inclination of the strands of yarn 
in both the new loop and the old one through which it was drawn 
tends to slide the entering yarn forward toward the observer, and 
then to revolve it as it w^ould a left-hand screw in entering. The 
revolving of the yarn takes some of the twist out of the yarn 
which is being looped and transfers it to the yarn which is being 
fed. The moving forward of the entering yarn displaces the 
loops in a way which produces twist in the fabric, as will be shown. 
Flat-fabric Twist caused by Revolving of Yam in Feeding. — 
It is evident that B is farther forward than A, but C corre- 
sponds to B, so C is farther forward than A. Consequently, 




Illustration 5. 
Plain flat knit fabric with right-hand twist caused by right-hand-twist yam. 

when the loops are turned upward as they are seen in the face of 
the actual fabric, loop E will be higher than loop D. That is, 
with left-hand-twist yarn the left-hand needle loops are high- 
est, and, conversely, with right-hand-twist yarn the right-hand 
needle loops are highest. Illustration 4 shows the meaning and 
result of having one needle loop higher than the other. At A 
two adjoining needle loops are shown in normal position. Fabric 
with loops like this is not twisted by the causes under discussion. 



108 The Science of Knitting 

At B the left-hand loop was higher than the other one, so if the 
bases of the loops are kept horizontal as shown, which corre- 
sponds to keeping the courses horizontal in the fabric, then, 
evidently, the fabric has left-hand twist. On the contrary, if the 
right-hand loop was higher as at C, the fabric has right-hand 
twist. This right-hand twist is shown more fully in Illustration 5. 

Rule for Flat-fabric Twist. — From the preceding it follows 
that yarn with left-hand twist produces fabric with left-hand 
twist, and yarn with right-hand twist produces fabric with right- 
hand twist, or the twist of the fabric is like the twist of the yarn. 

An interesting question is how much, if any, does the direction 
of motion of the machine affect the twist of either the yarn or the 
fabric? Evidently one end of the yarn is in the cloth and the 
other is in the cone. The cone does not revolve with respect to 
the yarn and only in the case of some one-feed circular machines 
does the yarn revolve with respect to the cone. 

Effect of Machine Motion on Fabric Twist. — A case of this 
kind is shown in Illustration 6, which is of a one-feed circular 
ribber in which the cams revolve anti-clockwise (the conventional 
direction of motion for such machines). Since the yarn enters 
the hole in the center of the end of the stud and comes out of the 
side of the stud, and since the stud revolves, whereas the cones 
are stationary, it is evident that for each revolution of the machine 
it must put one turn of twist in the yarn. The arrow in Illustra- 
tion 6 shows the direction of motion of the machine, from which 
it is evident that the twist put in the yarn is left-hand. 

Some Machines Twist Yarn Slightly. — Consequently, in a 
machine of this kind the twist put in the yarn is right-hand 
if the yarn carrier turns clockwise and left-hand if it turns anti- 
clockwise. This is also true of the ribber with dogless attach- 
ment when the cone does not revolve with the yarn carrier. In 
general, it is true of all machines in which either the carrier 
(yarn guide) or cone revolves in respect to the other, i.e., in 
machines in which the cone is stationary and the carrier revolves, 
or in machines in which the carrier is stationary and the cone 
revolves. 

Some Machines do not Twist Yarn. — When both the cone 
and carrier revolve together, as in Illustration 7, then the direc- 
tion of motion of the machine does not affect the twist of the yarn. 
This comes under the general rule that when the cone and carrier 
do not revolve with respect to each other, then neither the 



DIRECTION OF MOTION OF 
YARN CARRIER 




Illustration 6. 
Type of machine which twiats yarn. 



(109) 



Illustration 7. 

Type of machine which 

docs not twist yarn. 



(110) 




Twist in Flat Knit Fabric Made With Self-feeding Needles 111 

direction of motion of the machine nor the relative motion of the 
different parts of the machine affect either the twist of the yarn 
or the twist of the fabric. Illustration 7 shows a ribber of the 
revolving cam type in w^hich the carrier and the cone are station- 
ary with respect to each other, although they both revolv^ with 
respect to the head base. The result is the same whether the 
cams revolve one way or the other or w^hether the cams are 
stationary and the needles revolve one way or the other. This 
is contrary to the notions of some knitters and knitting-machine 
manufacturers who advocate a particular direction of motion, or 
a particular type of machine on account of alleged beneficial action 
on the twist of the yarn. 

Machine Motion does not Determine Direction of Yam 
Revolution in Feeding. — The fallacy of these arguments may 
be quickly shown by observing a knot traveling toward the 
needles during the making of the heel or toe on an automatic 
hosiery machine. If the yarn has right-hand twist, the knot will 
revolve clockwise viewed from behind and will continue to revolve 
so in spite of the fact that the needles revolve first in one direction 
and then in the other. This is equally true whether the machine 
be of the revolving cylinder type or of the more common revolving 
cam type. 

Fabric Twist Independent of Machine Motion. — Regarding 
the effect of the direction of motion of the machine on the twist 
of the fabric, reference to Illustration 3 shows that it matters not 
which of the two loops is formed first as far as the resulting twist 
in the fabric is concerned, for if the right-hand loop is formed 
last, the side of the loop on the extreme right will be drawn back- 
ward instead of forward toward the observer, so the illustration 
holds true for either case. Naturally, a corresponding conclusion 
would apply to right-hand-twist yarn as well. Consequently, 
the direction of motion of the machine has no effect on the twist 
of the fabric. From this it folio w^s that it makes no differ- 
ence whether the cams or the needles revolve with respect to the 
head base, since by any combination only two directions for the 
formation of the stitch are available and it has just been shown 
that neither one of these directions has any effect on the twist of 
the fabric. 

Minor Causes of Fabric Twist. — However, it is practically 
certain that the take-up tension, the j'-arn tension, the angle at 
which the yarn is fed and many such details combine to affect the 



112 



The Science of Knitting 



twist of the fabric in ways and to an extent which cannot readily 
be generaHzed. Moreover, the cause of what little twist there 
is in rib fabric seems to manifest itself slightly in flat goods also. 
This is explained under the title twist in rib fabric, which twist is 
opposite to that of the yarn of which it is composed. 

Conclusion. — Consequently, in flat fabric there are generally 
at least two opposite tendencies; namely, the marked one just 

described which is to twist in 
the direction of the yarn twist, 
and a slighter tendency to twist 
in the opposite direction. Ob- 
servations so far indicate that 
the former generally prevails, 
but if it is quite weak, then the 
twist of the fabric becomes op- 
posite to that of the yarn, but 
there is no inclination of the 
wales accompanying it. More- 
over, the effect is generally so 
slight as to be unobjectionable. 

TWIST IN RIB FABRIC 

Twist in rib fabric is due to 
a slight untwisting of the yarn 
instead of to stitch distortion. 
If the stitch is long, there is a 
greater length of yarn in it to 
on rib fabric twist. The yarn is untwist, SO the effect in the 
right-hand twist, which tends to fabric is more noticeable. 

The manner in which the un- 
twisting of the yarn affects the 
fabric may be understood by 
considering one face stitch with 
the top or round portion upward as in the illustration. The 
two sides of the loop lie approximately parallel as they enter 
the next lower loop. " Suppose that the twist of the yarn is 
right-hand. Then the visible strands or fibers will be inclined 
upward to the right like the threads of a right-hand screw. 
Consequently, if any of the twist comes out, the bottom of the 
stitch must turn to the right, and every stitch in the fabric 




Illustration o! one eflfect of yarn twist 



straighten, and to throw the bot- 
tom of the stitch to the right as 
shown by the dotted lines, which 
puts left-hand twist in the fabric. 



Summary Regarding Twist of I\iiit Fabrics 113 

twisting thus puts left-hand twist in the fabric for the wales 
will then be inclined upward to the left. In other words, the 
twist of the fabric is opposite to that of the yarn composing 
it. This can be illustrated nicely by running one cone of left- 
hand- twist yarn with a set of right-hand-twist yarn. The 
course made by the left-hand-twist yarn being distinctly different 
from the other courses, produces the loop effect of an improperly 
adjusted cylinder stitch cam, but close examination will show 
the stitches of this course to be twisted opposite to those of 
the other courses. 

Obviously, the weaker the twist in the yarn the slighter will 
be the twist in the fabric, and it can be reduced by running to- 
gether two equal threads of equal but opposite twist. 

SUMMARY REGARDING TWIST OF KNIT FABRICS 

General 

The direction of motion of the cylinder and the cams with re- 
spect to each other or with respect to the head base is immaterial. 

When the yarn carrier revolves with respect to the yarn- 
supply package, there is a slight tendency to twist the yarn 
right-hand if the motion of the carrier is clockwise and left-hand 
if the motion is anti-clockwise, but this tendency is so slight 
that it is negligibre, even on very small-sized machines on which 
it is the greatest. 

The yam is twisted in coming from the package, right-hand 
if unwound clockwise and left-hand if unwound anti-clockwise; 
and the extent of twist is inversely proportional to the length 
of one complete coil; but, at most, it is insuflficient to affect 
materially either the yarn or the fabric. 

WTien yarn is being drawn by a self-feeding needle, it re- 
volves clockwise if the yarn twist is right-hand and anti-clock- 
wise if left-hand, and thereby transfers some of the twist from 
the yarn which is forming the loop to the yarn which is just 
entering. The tendency is strong in hard yarns w^ith well- 
defined strands. This helps to account for the persistent kink- 
ing of some yarn when running into the machine. 

Rib Work 
The revolving of the yarn in entering seems not to affect the 
twist of the fabric, but the natural tendency of the yarn in 
the loops to untwist makes rib fabric twist slightly opposite to 
the twist of the yarn. 



114 



The Science of Knitting 



Winder Capacity, in Pounds per Spindle per 9 Hours Actual Time 
Nutaper, 1250 r.p.m. 





Cotton 


Worsted 


Cut 


Araer. 


Amst. 


Cohoes 


Silk 
dram 


Yarn 


195 


293 


546 








count 


Y^ 


Y 


Y 


1.17 Y 


1.87 Y 


3.7 Y 


.64 Y 


Y means yarn number 


1.0 


195 


293 


546 


1.2 


1.9 


3.7 


.6 


1.2 


162 


244 


455 


1.4 


2.2 


4.4 


.8 


1.4 


139 


209 


390 


1.6 


2.6 


5.2 


.9 


1.6 


122 


183 


341 


1.9 


3.0 


5.9 


1.0 


1.8 


108 


163 


303 


2.1 


3.4 


6.7 


1.2 


2.0 


98 


147 


273 


2.3 


3.7 


7.4 


1.3 


2.3 


84 


126 


234 


2.7 


4.4 


8.6 


1.5 


2.7 


73 


110 


204 


3.1 


5.0 


9.9 


1.7 


3.0 


65 


98 


182 


3.5 


5.6 


11.1 


1.9 


3.5 


56 


84 


156 


4.1 


6.5 


13.0 


2.2 


4.0 


49 


73 


136 


4.7 


7.5 


14.8 


2.6 


4.5 


43 


65 


121 


5.3 


8.4 


16.7 


2.9 


■ 5 


39 


59 


109 


5.9 


9.4 


18.5 


3.2 


6 


32 


49 


91 


7.0 


11.2 


22 


3.8 


7 


28 


42 


78 


8.2 


13.1 


26 


4.5 


8 


24 


37 


68 


9.4 


15.0 


30 


5.1 


9 


22 


33 


61 


10.5 


16.8 


33 


5.8 


10 


19.5 


29 


55 


11.7 


18.7 


37 


6.4 


11 


17.7 


27 


50 


12.9 


21 


40 


7.0 


12 


16.3 


24 


46 


14.0 


22 


44 


7.7 


13 


15.0 


23 


42 


15.2 


24 


48 


8.3 


14 


13.9 


21 


39 


16.4 


26 


52 


9.0 


15 


13 


20 


36 


17.6 


28 


56 


9.6 


16 


12.2 


18.3 


34 


18.7 


30 


59 


10.2 


17 


11.5 


17.2 


32 


19.9 


32 


63 


10.9 


18 


10.8 


16.3 


30 


21.1 


34 


67 


11.5 


19 


10.3 


15.4 


29 


22.2 


36 


70 


12.2 


20 


9.8 


14.6 


27 


23.4 


37 


74 


12.8 


21 


8.3 


14.0 


26 


24.6 


39 


78 


13.4 


22 


8.9 


13.3 


25 


25.7 


41 


81 


14.1 


23 


8.5 


12.7 


24 


26.9 


43 


85 


14.7 


24 


8.1 


12.2 


23 


28.1 


45 


89 


15.4 


25 


7.8 


- 11.7 


22 


29.3 


47 


93 


16.0 


26 


7.5 


11.3 


21 


30.4 


49 


96 


16.6 


27 


7.2 


10.9 


20 


31.6 


51 


100 


17.3 


28 


7.0 


10.5 


19.5 


32.8 


52 


104 


17.9 


29 


6.7 


10.1 


18.8 


33.9 


54 


107 


18.6 


30 


6.5 


9.8 


18.2 


35.1 


56 


111 


19.2 



Allowance should be made for lost time according to the 
quality of yarn and skill of help, which vary so much that a 
general rule is not given. 



Winder Capacity 



115 



Capacity in Pounds per Spindle of Upright Bobbin Winder, 300 r.p.m. of 
Main Shaft, for 9 Hours Actual Time 



















Yarn 
count 


Cotton 
166 

Y 


Worsted 
249 

Y 


Cut 
465 

Y 


Amer. 
Yxl 


Amst. 
Yxl. 59 


Cohoes 
YX3.19 


Silk 

dram 

Yx.545 


Y means yarn number 


1.0 


166 


249 


465 


1.0 


1.6 


3.2 


.55 


1.2 


138 


207 


388 


1.2 


1.9 


3.8 


.65 


1.4 


119 


178 


332 


1.4 


2 2 


4.5 


.76 


1.6 


104 


156 


291 


1.6 


2.5 


5.1 


.87 


1.8 


92 


138 


258 


1.8 


2.9 


5.7 


.98 


2.0 


83 


125 


233 


2.0 


3.2 


6.4 


1.09 


2.3 


71 


107 


200 


2.3 


3.7 


7.4 


1.27 


2.7 


62 


93 


174 


2.7 


4.2 


8.5 


1.45 


3.0 


55 


83 


155 


3.0 


4.8 


9.6 


1 63 


3.5 


47 


71 


133 


3.5 


5.5 


11.2 


1.91 


4.0 


42 


62 


116 


4.0 


6.4 


12.8 


2.18 


4.5 


37 


55 


103 


4 5 


7.2 


14.3 


2.45 


5 


33 


50 


93 


5 


8.0 


15.9 


2.72 


6 


28 


. 42 


78 


6 


9.5 


19.1 


\3.27 


7 


24 


36 


66 


7 


11.1 


22 


3.81 


8 


21 


31 


58 


8 


12.7 


26 


4.36 


9 


18 


28 


52 


9 


14.3 


29 


4.9 


10 


16.6 


25 


47 


10 


15.9 


32 


5.5 


11 


15.1 


23 


42 


11 


17 5 


35 


6.0 


12 


13.8 


21 


39 


12 


19.1 


38 


6.5 


13 


12.8 


, 19.2 


36 


13 


20 


41 


7.1 


14 


11.9 


17.8 


33 


14 


22 


45 


7.6 


15 


11.1 


16.6 


31 


15 


24 


48 


8.2 


16 


10.4 


16.0 


29 


16 


25 ■ 


51 


8.7 


17 


9.8 


15.6 


27 


17 


27 


55 


9.3 


18 


9.2 


13.8 


26 


18 


29 


57 


9.8 


19 


8.7 


13.1 


25 


19 


30 


60 


10.3 


20 


8.3 


12 5 


23 


20 


32 


64 


10.9 


21 


7.9 


11.9 


22 


21 


33 


67 


11.4 


22 


7.6 


11.3 


21 


22 


35 


70 


14.7 


23 


7.2 


10.8 


20 


23 


37 


74 


12.5 


24 


6.9 


10.4 


19.4 


24 


38 


78 


13.0 


25 


6.6 


10.0 


18.6 


25 


40 


80 


13.6 


26 


6.4 


9.6 


17 9 


26 


41 


83 


14.2 


27 


6.1 


9.2 


17.2 


27 


43 


86 


14.7 


28 


5.9 


8.9 


16.6 


28 


45 


89 


15.3 


29 


5.7 


8.6 


16.0 


29 


46 


93 


15.8 


30 


5.5 


8.3 


15.5 


30 


48 


96 


16.3 


32 


5.2 


7.8 


14.5 


32 


51 


102 


17.4 


34 


4.9 


7.4 


13.7 


34 


54 


108 


18.5 


36 


4.6 


6.9 


12.9 


36 


57 


.115 


19.6 


38 


4.4 


6.6 


12.2 


38 


60 


120 


20.7 


40 


4.2 


6.2 


11.6 


40 


64 


127 


21.8 



Allowance should be made for lost time according to the 
quality of yarn and skill of help, which vary so much that a 
general rule is not given. 



116 The Science of Knitting 



SUMMARY REGARDING TWIST OF KNIT FABRICS — 

CONTINUED 

Flat Work 
The revolving of the yarn in entering tends to twist the fabric 
the same as the yarn of which it is composed. When twist 
from this cause does not occur, there is generally a slight twist 
opposite to the twist of the yarn, due to the cause just men- 
tioned in connection with rib work. 



SET 

The original underwear mills in America carded and spun their 
own yarn, and the size of the mill was expressed by the number 
of sets of cards. A set of machinery was considered to be: 

1 set of cards; 1 mule; 2 spring-needle knitting tables, with 
2 four-feed cylinders each, i.e. 16 flat feeds in all; prepara- 
tory and finishing machinery to match, according to the special 
conditions, which were too diverse for general classification. 

Soon, however, the use of larger cards, the efforts to increase 
production, the introduction of the latch-needle machine, the 
use of fine bought cotton yarn instead of mill-spun woolen 
yarn — all these and other conditions — made the term set as 
applied to a knitting mill so indefinite that its use decreased. 
However, there are still many knitting mills which spin their 
own yarn; and there is much knitting information expressed in 
the set unit, so a knitter should know not only what a set is 
but also how much allowance to make in the use of it. 

Results of quite extensive investigations of knitting mills 
making their own yarn exclusively or nearly so, on woolen cards, 
show a set of machinery — for 48 inches of card width, either 
actual or reduced from other size cards — to range as follows : 

1 set 48-inch cards; mule spindles, 240 to 325; winder spindles, 
20 to 40; flat feeds, 14 to 25; sewing machine settings, 6 to 12; 
preparatory machinery, cuff-knitting machinery, and finishing 
machinery (other than that mentioned) to correspond. 

Among the other machines, which cannot be classified by 
the set because one is sufficient for a number of sets, may be 
mentioned a press, a washer, and a hydro-extractor. In ad- 
dition there are means for final drying, such as drying forms or 
dry pipes, brushers, dyeing and bleaching apparatus, and some 



Space Allotment in Knitting Mills 

{ )ortant machinery according to the work done am 

i s used. 

I cost of a set of knitting machinery is $10,000, wi 

I on of 30 per cent either way. 

cost of mill buildings per set is $7000, with consid 
.tion, frequently on the low side, since popular opinio 
ti «t any kind of building was good enough for a knitting 

The cost of the site varies so much that generahzatioi 
not be made. In some cases the land is " thrown in " as 
as power is paid for. 

The horse power required, as is shown w* 
where in the book, is about 18 per set. 
used, the engine is non-conder 
for heating, washing, and dr 
per set per year will supplv 
requirements, if the exh 

some live steam used du i 

stallations increase the ( 
cent. When exhaust stea 
ing, and drying, about fift^ 
those purposes. There i? 
and power installations 

It is difficult to det' 
water used is seldom 
an idea of it. 

Large mill for childrei 
and ladies' ribbed vests; 
dyed, and bleached, uset 
draulic elevators, and pre 
1000 gallons of water ar 
year. 

SPACE ALLOTS. 

The figures are from me 
operation, and are useful for 
or for estimating on the real estate 
of underwear. 

The per set figures are probably the i 
afford means of comparison on nearly eq 
units for proportioning the space accordin 
capacity of the mill. 



The Science of Knitting 



I^^OJ, 


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00 UO 
C<l CO 


CO »o 

T-H CO 

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1 

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t^ OS CO 00 
■^ CO lO CO 

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sno 




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t^ oo 


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OS O t^ OS 


aaiiog 


5§ 


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t^ OS 


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t^ in CO t>- 

<N N <-l 


^mo 


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CO <M 




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t~-. »0 OS CO 




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t^ 00 OS CO 




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t^ oo CO Tf 
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CO »-H M C^ 

T-l CO C^ ^ 




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r>. t^ -^ OS 

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oo »0 OS CO 




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03 



Space Allotment in Knitting Mills 119 

Mill A was built for the manufacture of percentage flat 
goods, but was running on men's fleeces when inspected. 

Mill B was built for the manufacture of woolen underwear 
and still made some in fine gauges, but the bulk of its output 
was men's cotton fleeces. 

Mill C was designed for making woolen underwear, but was 
running exclusively on men's fleeces, turning out from 300 to 
350 dozen per day. 

Mill D was designed for a general variety of goods, and was 
making children's fleeces, men's flat cotton underwear, and 
ladies' ribbed vests. 

All of the mills sold through commission houses. None of 
them was equipped with rib machinery exclusively; but this 
would not make much difference in the space allotment, so the 
figures may be taken for ribbed-underwear mills making their 
own yarn, as well as for flat-goods mills, either woolen or cotton. 

Explanation of the per Set Allotment ^ 

Storage. — That of mills A and C was not obtained, but from 
500 to 1000 square feet seems advisable, according to the 
amount of stock to be carried. Mill B had more room than it 
used. 

Picking. — Mill D picked and garnetted all of its waste, and 
had room to spare, which accounts for its large space allotment. 
None of the other mills worked up its own rag waste. Mill C 
had more room than it needed. 

Carding. — The figures run close together, but it should be 
remembered that ail of the yarn used was not spun, so slightly 
more yarn-making space would probably be desirable for a mill 
making all of its own yarn. In such a case 2000 square feet for 
yarn making is reasonable, and an approximate rule for dividing 
it up into picking, carding, and spinning is as 1 is to 2 is to 3. 

Spinning. — Mill C had some spare room. See paragraph on 
Carding for remarks on total yarn space which apply to Spinning 
as well. 

Winding and Knitting. — Mill C was crowded. A fair al- 
lowance is 600 square feet when flat cuff frames are used, and 
500 when not. The proportion of winding to knitting space is 
about as 1 is to 2. 

Washing. — An allowance of 200 is generally sufficient. 
Mill B had more than was required. 



120 The Science of Knitting 

Drying. — This space depends on the method or methods 
used for drying, or whether any is done at all. In rare cases 
washing and drying are not done. In the mills in question the 
horizontal-dry-pipe method was used. Mill B has also a drying 
room for the use of drying frames, which accounts for the larger 
space in that mill. When drying frames and drying lofts are 
used exclusively, the space may run as high as 1000 square feet 
and over, although 500 is a better average. The use of drying 
ovens decreases the space and heat needed for drying. 

Seaming and Finishing. — Mill A had waste room. A fair 
division when cuff looping is done is 1 to 2 for seaming to 
finishing. When looping is not done, the proportion of seaming 
and the total space may be less. An allowance of 1100 square 
feet is fair average practice for the total when looping ia 
done. 

Napping. — This was an afterthought, since fleeces became 
popular after these mills were built and the machine or machines 
were generally put wherever convenient. The space for Mill 
B is too small, since all of its product was not napped. The 
small garment brushers are not included in napping. They 
were scattered in different places when used. 

Packing. — All of these allowances are large, and properly 
some of each should be classified as storage of finished goods, 
but these two departments are so closely connected that it is 
difficult to locate the dividing line. 

Storage. — This space is excessive, owing to the facts that 
Mill B had been designed for a larger number of sets than was 
installed, and Mill C had been just recently enlarged but the 
new machinery was not yet in place. An allowance of 800 square 
feet is considered ample; 600 is considered an average. 

Machine Shop. — This space is generally limited by con- 
venience. 

Office. — The close relationship here shown to the capacity 
is reasonable since all of the mills had the same method of sell- 
ing, and the accounting methods would probably be much 
alike. 

Boiler. — Mill A had waste room, and Mill D had a com- 
pact battery. The average is between the two. 

Engine. — Mill A had waste room. 

Miscellaneous. — The extent of this is more a matter of 
accident than design. 



Horse Power Required by Various Machines 121 

Space Conclusion 

A total allowance of 7000 square feet per set of 48-inch cards 
is a fair average allowance, and 4000J seems to be about the 
minimum. 

It will be evident that there is quite a divergence in the space 
allowances, not only in the departments but' in the mills as a 
whole. This is to be expected; since knitting as an industry is 
comparatively new in America; since the mills have generally 
been a growth from a small original mill, often unsuited to the 
purpose; and since the design of knitting mills presents so many 
perplexing problems that designers have not found it profitable 
to devote to it the time necessary for its development. Al- 
though success in the knitting business depends on a great 
many factors more important than too much or too little space, 
still the space factor is overlooked only at expense which should 
go to profit and which will ultimately go there when the ^extent 
of the loss is realized. Every 100 square feet of floor space 
costs about $10.00 per year to maintain, which is interest at 
6 per cent on a capitalization of $167.00. On the other hand, 
if the space is insufficient to allow expedition in the conduct of 
the business, or if it is so poorly arranged as to require more than 
necessary hands to convey the work, the cost mounts up quickly. 
Experience indicates the advisability of the use of automatic con- 
veyors more than at present; passageways large enough to avoid 
congestion, but no larger; storage so arranged as to be available 
for either raw stock or finished goods ; and room for enlargement 
in at least one direction, and preferably more than one. 

HORSE POWER REQUIRED BY VARIOUS MACHINES 
USED IN KNITTING MILLS ^^ 

Horse Power 

Picker, wool or bur 4 -6 

Picker, rag . .'. 7 - 9 

( 2 Beater 4 -6 

Lapper < 3 Beater 3 -10. 5 

r 4 Beater 6 -16 

Set cards 1 -2 

Mule spindles per 100 4- .7 

Winders, upright, say 30 spindles 1 

Hydro extractor 2 -4 

Sewing machines, 5 1 

The above is from " Manual of Power " by Samuel Webber, 
published by D. Appleton & Co. and other sources. 



122 



The Science of Knitting 



Latch-needle Rib Machines 

By test 

Horse Power 
Hanger friction, including belts for 4 body 

machines or 7 ribbers 273 

Body machine, 9 feed, without shafting . . .443 

" " with shafting and 

motor 546 (One motor to 

about 50 body 
machines) 

Ribber, 2 feed, without shafting 31 

" '' with shafting and motor.. .394 (One motor to 

50 ribbers) 

Winder, 40 spindle, without shafting 44 

40 " with shafting 713 

Details are as follows: Knitting machines, Wildman, running 
at about 800 dia. r.p.m.; shafting, Ijf" dia., running at 340 
r.p.m.; hanger bearings, 8" X 1x1" babbitted and with ring oilers. 



POWER FOR KNITTING MILLS 

Results in indicated horse power of tests in two mills making men's cotton 
fleeced underwear and making their backing yarn on wool cards. 



1 



Belted shafting load 

Average load including shafting. 

Full load including shafting 

Average machinery load less belted shaft- 
ing load 

Full machinery load less belted shafting 
load 



3 Sets 48-in. 
cards 



Total 



14.97 

39.4 

50.2 

24.43 

35.23 



Per set 



5 

13.1 
16.7 

8.15 

11.75 



10.5 Sets 48-in. 
cards 



Total 



86.75 
127.6 
210.3 

85.85 

123.55 



Per set 



8.25 
12.15 
20 

8.17 

11.75 



Power for Knitting Mills 



123 



Generalization of Above 



Mill with less than 5 sets 48-in. cards 
Machinery load without shafting . . 

Shafting load 

Total load 

Mill with 5 or more sets 48-in. cards: 
Machinery load without shafting . . 
Shafting load 

Total load 



Average 



8.15 
_5 

13.15 



8.15 
8.25 
16.40 



Full 



11.75 
_5 

16.75 



11.75 

8.25 

20.00 



Subsequent information from other mills confirms the above, 
except that for general practice in mills of say 8 sets or over, 18 
indicated horse power per set is nearer the average total load. 



Spring-needle Loop-wheel Knitting Machines 

Delivered horse power to run circular spring-needle loop-wheel knitting 
machines, averaging 6^ feeds per cylinder, 26-gauge cotton flat work, 1200 diame- 
tral revolutions per minute. 



- 


llOcyls. 


Per cyl. 


Per table 




r with shafting 


33 

15 

18 


.30 

.14 
.16 


.60 

.27 
.33 


no cylinders' 

1 


shafting alone overhead 
and under tables 14 
to 16 


without above-men- 
•^ tioned shafting 



Proportionate Distribution of Power in a Ejiitting Mill Making Its Own Yarn 



Winding 

Knitting (including rib cuflfs and borders) 

Seaming 

Finishing 

Washing 

Yarn making 



Per cent 
horse power 



6.1 
22 

6.6 
12 

4.5 

48.8 

100.0 



124 The Science of Knitting 

RELATION OF MACHINE GAUGE AND CUT 

The term cut is used to designate the needle spacing of circu- 
lar latch-needle machines, generally with the number of cylinder 
needles per inch, measured on the circumference of the cylinder. 
A 12-cut machine has twelve cylinder needles per inch of the 
outside cylinder circumference generally measured on the cam 
surface. The dial needles are not involved. For instance, the 
12-cut machine might have a dial cut to match the cylinder, or 
cut half as fine, or have no dial at all. Such details are de- 
scribed in other ways than by the general word cut. This is 
reasonable since only one side of the cloth is seen at a time — 
generally the face or cylinder side — and the fineness of the 
cloth is judged by the number of wales per inch (or other unit) 
made on the cylinder needles. The use of dial needles does not 
necessarily change this number of wales, since the dial stitches 
lie back of the cylinder stitches instead of between them. 

The term gauge is used to designate the needle spacing of 
spring-needle machines, generally in connection with the num 
ber of needles per inch-and-one-half of the needle line. An 
18-gauge machine has 18 needles per inch-and-one-half of the 
needle line, whether curved or straight, or whether with one or 
two sets of needles. 

Evidently an inch-and-a-half is one-half greater than an 

inch, so gauge is one-half greater than corresponding cut, e.g. 

12 cut and 18 gauge stand for the same number of needles per 

inch. 

2 
Therefore, Cut = Gauge X 5 > 

3 

and Gauge = Cut X « • 

This applies to the fabric as well as to the machine; but 
spring-needle fabric is generally wider than latch-needle fabric 
made with the same number of needles per inch, since heavier 
yarn is generally used on spring-needle machines. 

The relation of the yarn numbers for different machines may 
be determined by coniparison of their respective yarn formulas. 

For latch-needle circular rib machines 

Yarn = (^^ (1) 



Gauge 125 

For spring-needle circular loop-wheel machines 

yarn=(«2;£^. ...... (2) 

For machines with the same number of needles per inch 

3 

Gauge = Cut X ^ • 

Substituting this value for gauge in (2), 



(^^^ 2-J 



I ^^^*^' 9 
Yarn = ^—^^ = -^^ = —Cut'. 



Yarn = ^^ ). (3) 



160 
Dividing (1) by (3) 



Cut2 



Yarn for latch-needle rib fabric _ 6 _ 1^0 _ 

Yam for spring-needle flat fabric 9 Cut^ 54 ~ ' ' ^ * 



160 



Therefore the number of the yarn for latch-needle rib machines 
is three times the number for spring-needle ' flat-work machines 
having the same number of needles per inch. If 10 yarn is right 
on 21 gauge, 30 yarn will be right on 14 cut. That is, the 
diameter of the yarn is about 1.73 greater for spring-needle flat- 
work machines than for latch-needle rib machines. 



GAUGE 

Different Standards 

The table gives the number of needles per English inch for 
the gauge given in the extreme left-hand column. For in- 
stance, 



126 



The Science of Knitting 



18-gauge in 

French, coarse 
French, fine 
Saxon 

EngUsh, split 
Enghsh, soHd 
Enghsh, three needle 
American, New England 
Viennese 



is needles per 
English inch 



10.98 
16.46 
19.38 

6.00 
12.00 
18.00 

9.00 
17.39 



Needles per English Inch 





French 






English 




American 




Ga, 






Saxon 










Vien- 














nese 




Groa. 


Fin. 




Split 


Solid 


3 Needle 


New 
England 




4 


2.439 




4.306 


1.333 


2.667 


4 


2 


3.865 


5 


3.049 




5.382 


1.667 


3.333 


5 


2.5 


4.830 


6 


3.659 




6.458 


2 


4.000 


6 


3 


5.797 


7 


4.268 




7.535 


2.333 


4.667 


7 


3.5 


6.763 


8 


4.878 




8.611 


2.667 


5.333 


8 


4 


7.729 


9 


5.488 




9.688 


3 


6.000 


9 


4.5 


8.695 


10 


6.098 




10.76 


3.333 


6.666 


10 


5 


9.662 


11 


6.707 




11.83 


3.667 


7.330 


11 


5.5 


10.63 


12 


7.317 




12.92 


4 


8.000 


12 


6 


11.59 


13 


7.927 




13.99 


4.333 


8.666 


13 


6.5 


12.56 


14 


8.537 




15.07 


4.667 


9.333 


14 


7 


13.53 


15 


9.146 




16.15 


5 


10.00 


15 


7.5 


14.49 


16 


9.756 




17.22 


5.333 


10.67 


16 


8 


15.46 


17 


10.37 


15.55 


18.30 


5.667 


11.33 


17 


8.5 


16.43 


18 


10.98 


16.46 


19.38 


6 


12.00 


18 


9 


17.39 


19 


11.58 


17.38 


20.45 


6.333 


12.67 


19 


9.5 


18.36 


20 


12.20 


18.29 


21.53 


6.667 


13.33 


20 


10 


19.32 


21 


12.80 


19.21 


22.61 


7 


14.00 


21 


10.5 


20.29 • 


22 


13.41 


20.12 


23.68 


7.333 


14.67 


22 


11 


21.25 


23 


14.02 


21.04 


24.76 


7.667 


15.33 


23 


11.5 


22.22 


24 


14.63 


21.95 


25.83 


8 


16.00 


24 


12 


23.19 


25 


15.24 


22.93 


26.91 


8.333 


16.67 


25 


12.5 


24.15 


26 


15.85 


23.78 


27.99 


8.667 


17.33 


26 


13 


25.12 


27 


16.46 


24.70 


29.06 


9 


18.00 


27 


13.5 


26.09 


28 


17.07 


25.61- 


30.14 


9.333 


19.07 


28 


14 


27.05 


29 


17.68 


26.52 


31.22 


9.667 


19.33 


29 


14.5 


28.02 


30 


18.29 


27.44 


32.29 


10 


20.00 


30 


15 


28.98 


31 




28.35 




10.333 


20.67 


31 


15.5 


29.95 


32 




29.27 




10.667 


21.33 


32 


16 


30.92 


33 




30.18 




11 


22.00 




16.5 


31.88 


34 




31.10 




11.333 


22.67 




17 


32.85 


35 




32.01 




11.67 


23.33 




17.5 




36 








12 


24.00 




18 




37 








12.333 


24.67 




18.5 




38 








12.667 


25.33 




19 




39 








13 


26.00 




19.5 




40 








13.333 


26.67 




20 





Gauge 



127 



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128 The Science of Knitting 

NEEDLES PER INCH OF HOSIERY MACHINES AND RIBBERS 
MEASURED FROM BACK TO BACK OF NEEDLES 

The cut or number of needles per inch of these machines is 
not much used, but the diameter of the cyHnder and the total 
number of needles is given instead to convey an idea of the 
fineness of the machine. Those who are not sufficiently famihar 
with such machinery to form a fair idea of the fineness from 
this information have to consult tables, which are given in 
some machine catalogues, or have to work out the cut by divid- 
ing the number of needles by 3.14 and then by the diameter. 
But since the division is generally shirked, since the tables are 
not always handy, and since comparatively few can remember 
the cuts for a wide range of sizes and needles, there is a general 
impression that it is possible to get along without knowing the cut. 
This impression is correct where experience and experiment are 
satisfactory guides, but it is impossible to establish a scientific basis 
of reckoning without knowledge of the cut or the needle spacing. 

The following table shows a simple and rememberable method 
of quickly calculating the cut with sufficient accuracy for all 
practical purposes. 

Dia. ofcyl. 2\ 2\ 2f 3 3^ 3^ 3f 4 4^ ^ 
.14 .13 .Hi .101 .10 .09 .081 .08 .07^ .07 

Multiply the number of cylinder needles by the number under 
the diameter and the result will be the cut. 

It is unnecessary to bother with the decimal point since the 
cuts generally range from 3 to 20 so confusion cannot occur. 
For instance, a 3|-186-needle machine is one of the following 
cuts, because the rule says multiply by ten, 1.86, 18.6 or 186: 
but since 1.86 cut is infrequent and since 186 cut is absurd, the 
result to take must be 18.6. Accurately, the cut is 18.2. The 
error due to the use of the quick rule is 2 per cent on this size, 
3 1, and on the 2| inch also. For the other sizes the error is 
1 per cent or under. 

The table in the middle of page 129 gives examples worked out 
by short cuts. 

For the other sizes there is not much advantage to be gained 
by the use of shorter cuts than the multipliers given. 

These diameters are from back to back of needle. If the 
cam-surface diameter is used, take the multiplier of the next 
smaller size, which will give the cut as closely as is generally 



Yam for Loop- wheel Machines 



129 



required. For instance, what is the cut of a 160-needle ma- 
chine 4| inches in diameter on the cam surface? The multi- 
pHer for the next smaller size, 4|, is 7|, which gives 12 cut. 
The actual cut is 12.15. 



Dia. 


Needles 


Multi- 
plier 


Solution 


Actual 
cut 


Error 


21 


126 


IH 


126 
Add 126, one-tenth 
Add 63, half of one-tenth 

1449 


14.5 


-0.006 


3 


148 


10^ 


148 
Add 74, half of one-tenth 

1554 


15.7 


-.0104 


31 


136 


10 


136 


13.2 


+ .021 


3^ 


128 


9 


128 
Subtract 128, one-tenth 

11.52 


11.56 


-.0104 


31 


146 


Sh 


146 
Subtract 146, one-tenth 

1314 
Subtract 73, half of one-tenth 
1241 


12.4 


+ .0013 


4 


214 


8 


214 

Subtract 428, one-fifth 

1712 


17 


+ .0053 


il 


138 


7h 


138 
Subtract 345, one-quarter 

1035 


10 3 


+ .0013 



Yam for Loop-wheel Machines 



Gauge 


Light 


Average 


Maximum 


Gauge 


Light 


Average 


Maximum 


8 


2.1 


1.6 


1.1 


26 


22.0 


17.0 


11.0 


10 


3.3 


2.5 


1.7 


. 28 


26.0 


20.0 


13.0 


12 


4.8 


3.6 


2.4 


30 


30.0 


22.0 


15.0 


14 


6.5 


4.9 


3.3 


32 


34.0 


26.0 


17.0 


16 


8.5 


6.4 


4.3 


34 


38.0 


28.0 


19.0 


• 18 


11.0 


8.0 


5.4 


36 


44.0 


32.0 


22.0 


20 


13.0 


10.0 


6.7 


38 


48.0 


36.0 


24.0 


22 


IS.O 


12.0 


8.1 


40 


54.0 


40.0 


26.0 


24 


19.0 


14.0 


9.6 











130 



The Science of Knitting 



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Cuts for Different Diameters and Slots 



131 










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to 


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on 


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oil 


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TtH 


•>* 


eo 


CO 


CO 


eo 




'— < 


'-H 






































O 


o 


00 


U5 O 


CM 


t-- 


o 


CO 


to 


to 


to 


o 


„ 


to 


to 


to 


r^ 


r^ 


CM 










CO 02 








o 


CM 


CM 


■^ 


CO 


to 


CO 


to 




r^ 


to 


to 




to 




«o 


eo CO 




rf 


*— ; 


CM 


05 


OS 


CM 


on 


CO 


CO 


on 




CO 


CM 


OS 


b- 


•^ 


■—1 


•-1 


CO CD 


CO 


to 


'—1 


t^ 


eo 


o 


00 


to 


CO 




OS 


00 


CO 


to 


CO 




^H 


o 


05 


oo t^ 


t^ 


CO 


CO 


to 


to 


to 


•>* 


•<tl 


•>* 


•* 


CO 


eo 


CO 


CO 


eo 




»-H 


▼- ' 






































o 


00 


CO 


CM O 


o 


CO 


CM 


CM 


to 


CM 


to 


^ 


oo 


o 


o 


■»f 


o 


o 


o 














to 






CM 




o 




CO 




to 


oo 


to 








■* 




»-H 


O CM 


■* 


CO 


■<*< 


r^ 


■^ 


to 


OS 


to 


•^ 


to 


r^ 




CD 


CM 


o 


r- 


^-< 


OS 


05 


^ ■«*< 


"-1 


CO 


OS 


to 


CM 


OS 


CD 


■<tl 


cq 


o 


00 


b- 


lO 


•^ 


eo 




jn 


o> 


00 


00 1:^ 


t^ 


CO 


to 


to 


to 


■^ 


•^ 


•^ 


TJ< 


■^ 


CO 


eo 


eo 


CO 


eo 




o 


o 


1^ 


O 00 


o 


eo 


to 


o 


00 


00 


to 


to 


to 


C5 


CM 


CM 


<-) 


^ 


to 




c^ 






^ -CTl 




CO 






CM 


OS 


CO 




CM 




M< 


r^ 


oo 






00 


<M 


c^ 


>o 


t^ -H 


CO 


oo 


r^ 


vH 


02 




to 


CM 


CM 


CO 


CO 


o 


CD 


eo 


o 


«o 


00 


«o 


CO 


oo CM 


o 


'-< 


t^ 


■<*< 


o 


1X1 


to 


eo 




05 


»>- 


CD 


•* 


eo 


CM 




o 


05 


00 


t^ t^ 


CO 


CO 


to 


to 


to 


'^ 


-<1< 


•<*< 


'<1< 


CO 


eo 


CO 


eo 


eo 


eo 




o 


00 


o 


IC CO 


CM 


to 


o 


00 


o 


CM 


to 


o 


■»t< 


to 


to 


CM 


lO 


(-> 


CO 




•* 




eo 


Oi CM 


•^ 




CM 




CO 


on 


CM 








en 




CM 


CM 


CM 






eo 




CO o 








to 


■*! 


CO 


CM 


o 


o 




to 


o 


to 


CO 




o 


tn 


CO 


■>*< 


CD O 


•<»< 


o 


CO 


CM 


OS 


CD 


■* 


CM 


o 


00 


CO 


to 


CO 


CM 


i-H 




o 


05 


00 


t^ t^ 


CD 


CO 


to 


to 


■«1< 


"^ 


-* 


-<t< 


•^ 


CO 


CO 


eo 


CO 


CO 


CO 




o 


o 


eo 


O "5 


o 


to 


o 


oo 


^ 


00 


to 


o 


o 


to 


r^ 


o 


CO 


, 


o 




to 


■«J< 


oo 


00 O 


00 


OS 


CM 


CM 


eo 


CO 


on 


■^ 


o 


CO 


CM 


tn 


rjs 


•^ 


00 


Tfl 






•^ 








CO 


OS 


OS 


CM 


oo 








M< 


m 


tn 


ro 




<» 












00 


"tf* 


o 


r- 


to 


CM 


o 


00 


t^ 


to 


CO 


CM 




o 




o 


05 


00 


^^ CD 


CD 


to 


to 


to 


Tf 


'i** 


•<*< 


■* 


CO 


CO 


eo 


eo 


CO 


CO 


CO 




r- 


o 


1^ 


CM O 


lO 


o 


CM 


to 


-* 


eo 


to 


to 


00 


o 


^ 


o 




CM 


CO 




t^ 




CO 


CD 00 


CM 


00 


CM 


eo 


eo 


to 


■^ 


CD 


on 


or, 


CM 


OS 


t^ 


CO 


•<* 


















CO 


•«^ 


on 


to 


•»t< 


to 


on 


CO 




to 


ro 








t^ 




-^ IC 




CO 


CM 


05 


CO 


CO 




OS 




to 


T}< 


CM 




O 


OS 




05 


oo 


t^ 


t^ CO 


CD 


to 


to 


■^ 


■^ 


■<*< 


■* 


CO 


eo 


CO 


CO 


eo 


CO 


CO 


CM 




>o 


o 


«<l 


o o 


UO 


o 


to 


to 


CO 


00 


to 


CO 


to 


eo 


•* 


00 


CO 


CM 






<35 


on 


05 


lO CD 


CO 


CO 


CM 


•^ 


CO 


eo 


o 


c:s 


t^ 


CM 




CM 


to 


on 




o 


■<n 


00 


CO 


■* CO 


t--. 


to 


OS 


r^ 


OS 


Tf< 


CM 




CO 


r^ 


CM 


on 




CO 




to 




'S' 






00 


■* 




t^ 


■* 


CM 


o 


00 


CO 


Ttl 


CO 




o 


OS 






o» 


00 


t^ 


CO CO 


»o 


to 


to 


•«tl 


■^ 


•^ 


Tt* 


CO 


CO 


CO 


CO 


eo 


eo 


CM 






00 


(M 


CM 


CO 00 


05 


o 


00 


CO 


oo 


■^ 


to 


^ 


eo 


to 


to 


t^ 


t^ 








o 


>o 


^ 


CO CO 




•^ 


CM 


to 


eo 


CM 


CO 


CM 


CO 


o 


o 


CO 


CO 






s 


CO 










CM 




■^ 




on 


OS 




to 






in 








(M 


CO 




cu 


CM 


OS 


CO 


CO 




00 


CO 


■o 


eo 


CM 


o 


OS 








05 


00 


t>. 


CO CO 


kO 


to 


•«*< 


-* 


■«»< 


■* 


eo 


CO 


CO 


CO 


eo 


eo 


CM 






ej 




rlNi 


HM 


BM 


T** 


-*» 


n^^ 




-M 


WIP» 


mt 




T^ 


r^rt 


«!•» 




r** 






P 


(M 


(>) 


CM 


CM eo 


eo 


CO 


CO 


•««< 


■^ 


•^ 


•^ 


to 


to 


to 


to 


CO 


CO 


CO 


CO 



132 



The Science of Knitting 









O 05 C<2 «0 

Cfl O O 05 05 00 00 



CD(MO5lOC<5O00lOC0 



o o o o 



OOiOOCOlOlCOO-^t-IO'* 

SS{52'5Z?'^'^''=<^^<3^000^00000 
00C3,-lloO3COOJUt.rtJ^,J(C^Sp:-*C§ 



i-(00050000Ir^t— t^ 



«0 <© CD lO lO »0 lO 



o o o 

^™^ ^^ CO I - WW v.*^^ T— 
!>• {^ 1— I CO lO CO 00 



OOCJOCO»OC<IO 



«0 (>• O CO 



.^~,^ -JcDcoooeoooooo 

> CO CO O OO «0 00 1-1 



.a 

V 

a> 
v 

a 
o 



CO 



m2S'^°°°°*^'^'^"^^^"'"'"5«5 



SS2S2SJ5PSooico.«ooo 



■*«5 00'-|»OO<r>M00iSc^C> 
■•-I O 05 05 00 00 !>. t>. 



I>. «5 (N O 

<Ci£)COO»0»CiClO 



;;^;s:29?'^'^C>oooot^05C5t~-t^h~ 
SS?SJ^SS22^<»«»'*Smoo2£o 
£322^2??2Mc»o-^<MMoc5oSo 



'•1 v^.^ ta ,/ \_<rf W'^ t.'J WJ 

CO CO CO 05 •<*< Oi ■«*< 



'— 't^'^i— iOOCOCOt-IOs 



00050000t^t^t^i»OOiC«io«i^* 



gg§f;;S:5ggj§§§g2§§iii 

oo^_Tt<oocqt^S^gg^S{2^^§o 
<Nt- ioajooodi>^i>J 



COOCOCO>0»0 0>0-* 



°°. '^ °=. '=^. « ". « '^^. » ^ 2 S S ^ 2 § g 

•i-iooioooooo*t>^t>J 



<0 CO CO »0 lO lO lo" ■•*4 rjH 



»OCOt^O,)<05Tt<Ot^COOt^iOCOOOoP- 
tM O 05 05 oo' t-^ I>." 1^' CO CO CO U5 IC »0 lO <*■ Tjt 



iii-§g8ggg§22gg2§2 



>— I O 05 00 OO t— t-' 



CO CO CO iC »0 U5 ITS -.^i Tji Tti 






r-!ooocs,,j*co§p??^;gig2;gSo 

-^'-looiocooooti 



t^ »-H CO T— ( 



1-H O 05 00 OO t>. t:^ 



C0c0c0i0ic>oi0rt<-»*<M<' 



O O CO t^ O 00 



CO O O kC o o 



t^OcocooooooodsoJcoS 
a>cooic^jico5-<tiooc<io5co 

^j O OJ 05 00 t-^ t-.' !>.■ CD CD lO tei lO lO Tti Tti Tti Tft' 



t- lO <M CO t^ 

CO CO 1^ CO c^ 

O 00 OO O CO 

C^ 05 !>■ CO ■>*< 



SS22SS'=>i5<^<=> 

COGg»— IrHCDOSi-HOt^ 

t--cot^Ocooocoooio 

-H O 05 O 00 t^ t-^ CO CD CO lO ui >o >o 



-- — — ^ — ^OOlOi— ICOCO 
'CCOI^->ti(MOlO»000 

coiot^MOioooooeo 

"-HOOlOCOOOOCOUSCO 



O O O I^ 



SSfc=2S2.^S2e«!¥??oo 



■* CO t>- ■<* 



^53.?^r7^riJ2^:T^fO'^^''50oot^oooTtl 

■^•^»OOOr-.CO-Ht^cOOt^i*(N«>t^lO'5l^ 
■-lOOSOOOOt— "t--^CDcdco" 



U5«5»Ct(<-»*<t*i^^ 



2'S Si^sssssaot-po 



'rt< CO t>- cS c^ o5 ^ 

Ml— ICOCOO-*iOlOC^IOO 

■'-<oosoooor--t--cocoio 



Ocoost^cooco-* 

COCOOOOcOi»<COi-( 



H-* HN WI-* 



Cuts for Different Diameters and Slots 



133 











1 

CO 


o 

CO 

d 


CO 

o 


o 

C5 


o 

CO 

d 


o 

CI 

00 

oo' 


oo' 


CM 

00 

o 

00 




oo 
CO 


o 
o 


1 

CM 

00 

d 






























o 

00 

d 


s 

OO 

d 


CO 


CO 

CO 

05 


CO 
00 


lO 
CO 
CO 

CO 

00 


00 


CO 

CO 


o 

CO 
CO 

t^' 


o 

CM 

9 


CO 
































o 

o 


o 

o 
o 

fO 


o 

lO 
CO 
CO 

d 


o 
d 


to 
d 


o 

g 

d 


»o 

00 


o 

oo 
CM 
00 


o 

i 


CI 

CO 
CO 
lO 


CM 

CO 
CI 


CM 

CO 


CO 
CO 










o 






o 

CO 
OO 
00 


o 


o 
>o 

OO 

d 


o 

CO 

d 


o 


o 

CM 

oo' 


o 

oo 
00 

•>* 
oo' 


CM 

o 

00 




o 

CM 


CO 
!>.' 


CJ 

CO 
lO 
00 

d 


CI 

o 

CO 

d 










00 
CO 






o 

CO 


o 

CM 

OO 

d 


CO 
CO 

d 


o 

Cl 

CO 
t^ 

C5 


lO 

ca 

o 


o 

oo 

t^ 

00 


o 

CO 
CO 

00 




CO 


o 
o 

CO 

t-' 


CI 

o 


CO 

00 
CO 


00 

o 
CO 






















CO 
CO 






o 

CO 


OO 

d 


s 

OO 

d 


o 
o 

CI 

CO 

d 


CO 
05 


CO 

00 


lO 
lO 

■<* 

CI 

oo' 


o 

00 


00 
00 
CM 

1>1 


CM 


CO 
CM 

d 


CI 

o 

CD 
CO 

d 


CO 

CO 

d 






















CO 






o 

CO 


CO 

CO 

d 


o 

CO 
CO 

o 
d 


05 


00 


o 
o 

CO 

»o 

00 


CI 

oo" 


o 

lO 


o 

QO 


00 


00 

CM 
00_ 

d 


CM 

CI 

o 
d 


CI 

CO 


CO 





o 

i 


o 

o 


o 
d 


CO 
00 
00 

d 


o 

CO 
CO 

05 


CO 
OO 


CO 
CM 

o 
oo' 


o 

o 

o 

oo 


CO 
CO 


CI 

o 

CO 


00 
CM 

o 
o 

!>■' 


00 
CM 
CJ 

t^ 

CO 


CO 
CO 


00 

CM 
CM 

CO 


o 

CO 


:-::::: 


o 

(M 
CI 

00 


o 
CO 


o 

lO 
CO 

d 


o 

CO 
05 


CO 

en 


00 
00 


CO 
lO 

t^ 

CI 

oo' 


o 

CI 

oo 
00 


CO 
CM 

t-' 


00 

o 

a> 

!>.' 


o 

00 

d 


00 

o 

C] 

CO 

d 


CO 

CO 

CO 

d 


00 

o 

CO 

d 


00 




o 

o 


o 
CO 

00 

d 


o 
CO 

OO 

d 


o 

OO 

d 


o 

o 
d 


»o 

00 


o 

oo 

-f 
oo' 


00 

§ 


o 

!>.' 


00 

o 


o 
d 


o 

«o 
d 


CO 

CO 

CM 

d 


CO 

CO 

o 
d 


«o 




o 
•o 


o 

CO 

d 


o 

CI 

o 
d 


o 
CO 

d 


CM 

00 


o 

CO 

"*. 

00 


o 

CI 

o 

00 


en 
CO 

CO 


o 

CI 
CI 


o 
d 


o 

CO 

d 


o 

d 


00 

o 
d 


f 

OS 

d 




o 

o 

'.'.'.'■'■ c<\ 


o 

to 

cq 


o 
CI 

d 


o 

OO 

CO 

00 

d 


o 
d 


o 

00 


o 

o 
o 

CO 
Oo' 


o 

CO 

00 

1^ 


CI 

oo 


CO 


CO 

CO 

00 

d 


o 

00 

to 

CO 


»o 

CO 
CO 


00 
CM 

o 
d 


CO 




o 

o 

i : : : : ^. 


o 
o 


o 

CO 

d 


o 
d 


CO 
CO 

d 


00 

C4 

CO 

00 


c? 
od 


o 
CO 

CO 


CO 
CO 


CO 

o 

CO 

o 


"0 

d 


d 


CO 

CO 

CM 

d 




CI 

CO 

d 


o 


. . . : . o 

CO 

: : : : :K 


o 

CO 
OS 

o" 


o 
<o 

00 

d 


d 


00 

t^ 

00 
05 

00 


o 

00 
00 

00 


CI 

00 


o 

CO 
CO 

1>. 


lO 
CM 


o 

CO 


>o 

CO 

d 


o 
CO 

CO 

d 


d 


CI 

CO 

oo 


o 

02 

CO 

d 


00 


o 

t^ 

»o 

«o 


o 
o 

CO 

d 


o 

CO 

o 
d 


CI 

CO 
CD 


o 

00 
CO 
00 

OO 


OO 

CO 
CO 
00 


o 
o 


»o 

lO 


CM 

»o 
t^' 


o 

CI 

00 

CO 


o 

CM 

CO 
d 


CO 
CM 

CO 


o 
o 

CO 


00 
00 


oo 

CO 
»o 




r4-* WW «M H-* 
C>1 C<l <M (M CO CO 


CO 


Ml-* 

CO 


■>*< 


r4-t 




MM 


>o 




UO 


lO 


CO 


CO 


CO 


CO 



134 



The Science of Knitting 



a> 



d 
o 

09 



to 



s 
u 







Tf^joiftcocoeoosos 




^^ooosoodoood 


■^ 
t^ 


oooQ«5»oooe<i 

cgt::--^t^cococo(Mo 


r-l 


OOOOOOt^OtHO 

Cq'^IMlOMIMScMT-l 

^OO050»0500C»00 


O 






2 


















to 




005Tt(Tt<05t^O»OCCifO 


^OOO^OSOJOOOOOOt^ 


CD 




c<5oo«oe<5<Miooo->i<oeoo5 








o 

CD 




00'-lC^00OlOl000-<i<CCTt< 


i-Hr-HOOOlOSOOOOOOt^t^ 


00 








cx3t-iiooi«rtt^eoot^-«*< 






CD 




OOCO>OCOlO<MCOt~--«l<Ttl»rt 






1(5 






iO00eC00MO5iO^00>O<M 








oooooo»cicc»cooo 

0500<OOOI^'-<05'— ICD-<*Tf<CO 


C-5r-IOO050S0000CX3l>-l^t~- 


O 


OOOOOCOOO»COOO>rt> 

CDTfHOCK|0S'»tl'-l-rt<t^05CDC0 

05IM001COCOC005COCOO 

i-i^OOOsOsoooot^t^t^t^ 


00 


t^-^OOt-^CO>OCO^l^OOO» 

t— OTt<05'^0>»0'-IOOiO<N05 

^i-lOOSOOOOOOOb-t^lr^CO 


(5 


C^(NC<I(MCOeOC<5CO-«*<Ttf-^Ttl>OU5«0"5CO«OCOeO 



Cuts for Different Diameters and Slots 



135 






<M 




' ^ pn r^ ra r^ *i 








r^ r~^ r~) m 


^ ^ ^ ^ ^ 


S 
W 


_ ^ 














o 












_ • 




O 

o 










*i5 s_^ O ♦ H t _ ^ 






00 




--^ GO O -^ '^ CD r^ 












CO CO O t^ c^i c: c^ 


GO CO 00 CO O lO CM 






CO 




OC>lCOOOOOTt< 


-^ ^_ ' ■ ■ 








O '-n 00 lO 00 (M -^ 








C 




















oo 

00 


t^ O O CO -^ t^ 40 

O GO CD t^ 1-- O CO 














to 

00 
















00 
















oo 




























00 




1-H 












00 


OOOOOOfMOO 










c3 


C^C-lCNj(MCOCOCOCO"^"^"»^rt*iOiOw^lOCDCO*OCO 



136 



The Science of Knitting 



(M ^ r^ 



O -H O 
r-l CO -^ 
00 CO OS 



O CO l-H t^ 

c^q .-I ,-( O 



00 o; r^ CO 



T^ — ' o o 



CO 

0) 



CO t^ O CO 
00 O 1^ CO 
00 -^ 05 lO 



o 



«0 CO <N OO 
»- O t^ CO 

t^ CO 00 •*! 



a 

s 



O -^ T*( -Cf 

O- O t^ t^ 

«0 IM 1^ CO 

•^ T-i d o 



t"- •^ <M lO O 



0) 



cq ^ ,^ O O 



CO 00 
05 -^ 



00 CO 00 Tj< o 

^ ^ d d d 



• o o o o o 

• >o CD CO c^ r^ 

■ CO Tt* 05 OO C5 

• t^ cq i>- CO 05 

• ^ ^ d o d 

■ o o o o o 

■ *0 O »0 Tfi CO 

• C^ ■* 02 oo c 

• CO i-H CO Od CI 

• i-H ,-1 o o o> 

Q C O O O O 

CO Tf< -^ TJ< CO C-. 

CO 1—1 CO Ci CO o 

O lO O lO •— I 00 

<M 1— I 1— I O O C5 



iHN 






■^■^■^■^lOio^OiOcccococb 



Cuts for Different Diameters and Slots 



137 



• CO 
■ CO 

• 00 

• 00 

• 00 

• t~ 

• lO 

• C5 

• o 

<£> O 

■* o 

o o 

(M T-H 

OO lO 
■^ O 
O »C 

>-l <M 

OO ■* 

PO (^ 
t~- PO 

lO -^ 
«0 <M 



C^(M(MC^MCOCOCO-<#^ti-^-^iOi-0«0'-OCO«0':00 



138 The Science of Knitting 

Range of Fabrics from the Same Gauge or Cut 




Attention has been called elsewhere to the fact that the width 
of the wale and, consequently, the width of the fabric are pro- 
portional to the diameter of the yarn. Since this may seem 
questionable in view of the general impression that the cut is 
important in the determination of the width of the wale and of 
the fabric, the above illustrations are given of two fabrics made 
on the same cut, namely 14, but with different sizes of yarn, and 
different lengths of stitch. No. 1 is made on a spring-needle 
jack-sinker machine, which is adaptable to heavy yarn; whereas 
No, 2 is made on a latch-needle rib machine, for which light yarn 
is suitable. The fact that the fine sample is made on a rib 
machine does not make the comparison unfair, for although 
there are in the machine 28 needles to the inch, counting cyUnder 
and dial, the fabric is no finer than it would be if it were knit 
fiat with 14 needles to the inch, since the stitches from the dial 
needles lie on the back of the fabric, and, consequently, cannot 
be seen. It is obvious therefore that determinations of the 
needle spacing, or the gauge, from the spacing of the wales may 
be entirely misleading. 

YARN FOR FLAT COTTON FLEECED GOODS 
Gauges 20 to 28 Inclusive 
Since three threads per feed are used in making ordinary 
fleeces and since the relations of these threads are not standard- 
ized, but rather are determined by the equipment of the mill, 



Yarn for Flat Cotton Fleeced Goods 



139 



by the weights of garment called for by the trade, and by other 
conditions foreign to the actual knitting, the following tabula- 
tion is given of combinations of yarns used in actual practice 
by representative knitting mills, and yarns obtained by rules 
which agree closely with the best practice. 



Yam for Flat Cotton Fleeced Goods 



1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


] 

j^Gaug© 


Face 


Binder 


Backing 


Backing by 

rule — 
9 


Com- 
bined 
face 


Combined 
face by 

rule — 
40 


20 
22 
22 
22 
22 
24 
24 
24 
26 
28 


20 
22 
22 
22 
26 
26 
26 
22 
28 
30 


30 
30 
30 
30 
26 
30 
30 
30 
28 
60 


5.00 
5.47 
6.00 
5.20 
7.70 
5.50 
6.50 
6.12 
6.50 
9.45 


4.45 
5.38 
5.38 
5.38 
5.38 
6.40 
6.40 
6.40 
7.50 
8.70 


12.0 
12.7 
12.7 
12.7 
lo.O 
13.9 
13.9 
12.7 
14.0 
20.0 


10.0 
12.1 
12.1 
111 
12.1 
14.4 
14.4 
14.4 
16.9 
19.6 



Columns 1, 2, 3 and 4 show the actual practice. The stitches 
per foot of yarn and the weights per dozen were not obtained, 
or when obtained, were rejected owing to incompleteness or 
inaccuracy. Indeed, the weight per dozen is unsatisfactory 
without information as to how many square yards of fabric 
make up the dozen. 

Column 5 gives the number of the backing yarn obtained by 

the rule Cotton number of backing yarn = — ^— , which rep- 
resents the average. The constant for practical extremes 
ranges from 6 to 10.5. Consequently, if the heaviest advisable 
backing is desired, divide the square of the gauge by 10.5. This 
is not to be taken as the heavy limit, but it is inadvisable to 
attempt to use heavier yarn commercially without trying it on 
the machine. The backing yarn is generally made in the knitting 
mill, where it is customary to number it in grains or in some 
other number than the cotton number. Simple rules for trans- 
formations into the standards used are given elsewhere. 



140 The Science of Knitting 

Column 6 gives the single-thread equivalent of the face and 
binder actually used. 

Column 7 gives the regular single thread for the gauge. 

The similarity of Columns 6 and 7 is marked. It is also 
noticeable that the face thread used is the same as the gauge, or 
very nearly so; consequently, a rough rule /or the range of gauges 
given is to make the face thread the same as the gauge, use a 
bmder about number 30 or under, and use gauge squared divided 
by 9 for the backing, varied, if necessary, in order to obtain 
the desired weight after it is known what weight the above 
combination gives. It should be remembered that a change in 
weight in the backing should be proportionally twice that de- 
sired in the goods, since the backing constitutes only half of 
the fabric by weight. 

For gauges other than those given above, the same rule for 
backing will probably hold; but for the face yarn it is advisable 
to derive the equivalent single face yarn by the rule: Cotton 
number equals gauge squared divided by 40, and then split the 
face into two threads of which the binder should be the lighter. 
This division into the two threads is readily done by those who 
can reverse the rule that the single equivalent thread equals 
the product of the two divided by their sum, but those who are 
not famihar with such operations may use the table given else- 
where of the single equivalent of two yarns. 

SINKER BUR 

^The sinker bur is an angular gear having for teeth tempered 
steel blades with a slight hook, called a nib, for controlling the 
yarn during the operation of pushing it between the needles 
and up under the beards. The bur body is generally made of 
bronze to facilitate cutting, and is provided with a hardened 
steel bushing to insure against sticking, to provide for long 
wear and to enable replacement. 

The blades are radial and straight (plane), so the length of 
stitch is limited; therefore good design and adjustment are neces- 
sary for good running. Moreover, they are not adjustable, so 
the operator has no choice- regarding the spacing of the blades. 

The operator can adjust the bur in and out, also up and down, 
can rotate it on a horizontal axis, and can generally throw the 
top of the bur in or out of the needles with respect to the bottom 
of the bur to a slight extent. 



Sinker Bur 141 

The bur bends the needles backward with the reaction of 
being driven, and pushes the needles inward with the reaction 
of feeding the yarn. If the needles are displaced backward too 
far, the bur over-reaches and the blades get in under the beards, 
which causes serious trouble. If the inward bend of the needles 
were slight and constant, no trouble would result; but it is not 
constant because it depends on the push of the yarn, which in- 
creases with increase of yarn diameter or increase of tension and 
vice versa. Consequently there is always some variation in the 
inward bend of the needle, since the yarn tension is never con- 
stant, and since the diameter is seldom uniform except in the 
very best yarn. Evidently, inward bendmg of the needle 
shortens the length of the loop drawn, in proportion to the ex- 
tent of the bending, and makes cloudy fabric. This inward bend 
of the needle, which causes defective fabric, and this backward 
bend, which causes broken needles and other waste, are the 
two most serious objections to the loop-wheel machine; and 
together do much to offset its advantages of high speed', dura- 
bihty and adaptability to change of size, gauge and kind of 
work. Moreover, there is the still further disadvantage that a 
poorly designed or improperly adjusted sinker aggravates the 
troubles just mentioned. 

The diameter of the sinker bur should not be greater than is 
necessary to enable driving it with security and still to get 
the yarn surely under the needle beard and leave the loop fully 
drawn in the head of the needle. There are different opinions 
as to how far below the point of the beard the yarn should 
begin to draw the loop. If a low point is selected, the drawing 
is facilitated by the round shank of the needle; but a low point 
needs a large bur, which increases the number of loops drawn 
at a time, and increases the backward bend of the needle. If 
the drawing of the loop is begun well up toward the point of the 
beard, the diameter of the bur must be less, but there are the 
disadvantages of drawing over the needle eye, which extends 
do\Nm a little way below the point of the beard; the possibility 
of sphtting the yam on the point of the beard, which causes a 
partial tuck; and the possibility of feeding it up over the beard, 
which causes drop stitches or a press-off. Evidently with a 
short stitch, the diameter of the bur must be large in order to 
have enough blades in mesh for secure driving, and in order to 
obtain sufficient lift for the yarn. On the other hand, for a 



142 The Science of Knitting 

deep stitch a small diameter is advisable, since the lift is in- 
creased by sinking the bur deeper, and since a large bur would 
put so many blades in mesh that it would cramp itself. Con- 
sequently, the length of stitch to be run has much to do with 
determining the diameter. 

Theoretically, the blades should be helical, so that when in 
mesh they would be nearly parallel to the needles. English 
sinker burs with soldered blades are sometimes made this way 
by bending the exposed portion of the blade, but since such 
bending is practically impossible with the well-tempered blades 
called for by American practice, and since the cutting of narrow 
helical slots and bending of blades to correspond is not deemed 
practical, helical blades are not used in American practice. Con- 
sequently, a part of the freedom of the bur in the needles is 
lost through the difference of inclination of the blades in mesh. 
From this it follows that the action of the bur in the needles may 
be made freer by reducing the vertical height in the needles, 
which may be done by bending the sinker bur bracket upward 
in machines where flexible brackets are used, or by packing the 
sinker stand outward where no such provision is made. 

However, there is an objection to reducing too much the verti- 
cal height of the [^blade in mesh, since this reduction increases 
the danger of over-reaching; as is seen from consideration that 
the bur, although like a gear, has a large amount of back lash 
(play, in the needles) as compared to a gear. This back lash is 
reduced by tipping the bur so that the tops of the blades are 
inclined backward with respect to the motion of the needles. 
This tipping brings the rounded part of the blade where it will 
strike the approaching needle in case of a pull back, and will 
help to keep the bur in mesh, instead of allowing the nib of the 
bur to over-reach and shear off a needle beard, in which case it 
is likely to continue to over-reach until the machine is stopped 
and the bur is reset. If the blade has insufficient vertical depth 
in the needles, the bur cannot be tipped enough for secure 
running. This gives a clue to one of the most important points 
in setting a sinker. That is, that the shoulder of the blade 
should enter near the approaching needle, whereas the nib of 
the blade should enter near the passed needle, when the bur is 
set at the required depth. It is advisable to try this before 
putting in the yarn as well as after. 

When this requirement is met, the nib should leave the loops 



Sinker Bur 143 

in the heads of the needles and should retire without pulling the 
loops and without touching the needles. If it does snap the 
needle on either side, the loop is almost sure to twist or drop 
and moreover to make rough work, by the formation of unequal 
stitches. 

It is well to adjust the bur and run the machine without yarn 
or cloth in order to observe the action of the bur, which should 
run uniformly without grating the needles, without bucking them 
as the blades enter, without rippling them as the nibs retire and 
with but slight bowing action opposite the center of the bur. If 
the shoulder bucks the needles, the bur may be too coarse, or 
the top may be tipped backward too far. If it bows the needles 
too much, it is said to be gathering them, i.e., pinching them 
together. This is undesirable, since the yarn cannot be fed 
freely, so that weak places are likely to part at the sinker and 
knots are likely to catch, either of which often breaks the yarn. 
If the needles are rippled by the retiring nibs, the indication is 
either that the bur is coarse and is pushing the leaving needle 
forward, or that the bur is fine and is holding back the oncoming 
needle. This last fault is worse than the first, since if the bur 
is tight without the yarn, it will be still tighter when it is feeding 
the yarn, because^ the considerable force required to draw the 
loop has to be transmitted by the flexible needles, which bend 
backward some, and so permit the leaving nib to " pick " the 
oncoming needle still more; whereas if the leaving nib is pushing 
ahead slightly when it is running without yarn, it may be drawn 
back into its proper position when the yarn is being fed. 

If the bur runs properly without the yarn, it should then be 
tried with the yarn, either when the cloth is not on the machine, 
by turning the cylinder by hand, or by trying it with the cloth 
and power on. This depends on the skill and experience of the 
operator and on the yam and stitch used. Some adjusters use 
a magnifying glass and make exhaustive tests before putting on 
the power. Others, especially with light yarn, will put a sinker 
on the stud, throw on the power, and make all adjustments with 
the machine running at full speed. The best way is undoubtedly 
to set the bur as carefully as possible before the power is on, 
make sure that it forms the loop freely and properly and then 
observe it when it is run with power. The action of the needles 
in mesh should be noted by inspection from above their heads. 
They will bow inward more than when the bur was running free 



144 The Science of Knitting 

and the extent of the bowing will fluctuate according to the 
tension on the yarn and the lack of uniformity in its diameter. 
But the general shape of the needle line in the bur should not 
change to a considerable extent. If it does so, becoming almost 
angular at times, then there is a cramping action which should 
be eliminated if possible. 

There are many causes for this violent pushing-inward of the 
needle. The yarn has to be dragged over the blades and around 
the shanks of the needles with a velocity which varies from one 
and one-half times that of the needles, at the entrance of the yarn, 
to zero velocity when the loop is fully drawn. The extent of the 
dragging, sliding, and rubbing is seldom realized. But some 
conception of it is necessary in order to understand how to 
reduce it. 

The edges of the blades may be too sharp. Theoretically, they 
should be half round, but practically they are not so, since in the 
punching one edge is slightly rounded and the other is left with 
a sharp fin. In the subsequent tumbling the already rounded 
edge becomes still more rounded, but the sharpened edge does not 
always get enough tumbling to bring it into proper shape. Con- 
sequently, even when the edge is smooth, it may be angular 
enough to retard the yarn unduly and thus increase the work of 
sinking the loop. If in addition to this the roughness is not taken 
off the edge of the blade, the case is bad indeed, for the work of 
sinking the loop will not only be much increased, but the yarn 
will be scraped and cut, especially at knots; and an occasional 
leaving nib will pull a long loop by stealing from the already 
formed loops, and will thus make a loose loop on the back of the 
fabric with tight stitches on each side, which latter are likely to 
get cut at the cast-off. 

Blades which are improperly tempered may appear all right, 
but may become nicked with use, and so may act as if improp- 
erly tumbled. 

Sometimes during the hardening of the blades a black oxide 
forms and does not come off in the tumbling. The rough- 
ness of this oxide will sometimes put severe friction on the 
yarn. 

Needles which are rusted, tarnished, or insufficiently polished 
will sometimes put so much tension on the yarn that the sinker 
will appear to be improperly set. Also, needles which are cramped 
too tightly, or are roughened in the cramp by improper milling 



Sinker Bur 145 

or by oxide, will resist the entrance of the yarn. The resistance 
increases the inward bend of the needle, which in turn increases 
the cloudiness of the fabric and invites." smashes." 

If the sinker runs all right with the yarn in position, it should 
be tested for a slight overload, which testing is generally done by 
turning the cylinder with one hand while a finger of the other 
hand is held on the bur to retard it slightly. If it is properly set, 
it will strike the oncoming needle first with its shoulder; but if 
it is improperly set, the nib or the whole edge of the blade wull 
catch and buck the needle out of line inwardly. It is unsafe to 
run a bur so set, since overloads are sure to occur; and a bur so 
set will neither avoid trouble nor extricate itself, but will get 
into deeper trouble after it gets started. 

If the sinker stands a reasonable overload, the next considera- 
tion is the sinker shaft spring. All machines are provided with 
this, for the reason that by retention of the adjusting nut against 
the stop it provides in combination with the nut a convenient 
means of adjusting the bur for depth. Moreover, probably the 
majority of knitters consider that the spring is useful for relieving 
the sinker when a load-up occurs, by allowing it to back part way 
out of the needles. Consequently, the spring is generally ad- 
justed to keep the bur at the required depth under ordinary 
circumstances, but slack enough to allow it to back out and drop 
its load if this gets so heavy that serious damage would result. 
Of course, if the spring is too slack, it may allow the bur to 
back out and shorten the stitch unnecessarily, which is the fault 
with the use of slack springs. However, it is generally admitted 
that for good speed and especially with fairly heavy yarn, 
much damage can be averted by judicious adjustment of the 
spring. 

A common diflficulty with sinker burs is to get blades of the 
proper thickness. Bad results follow the use of blades which 
will .not go down into place as well as blades which are loose. 
If it is necessary to use blades which are a trifle oversize, they 
can sometimes be assisted into position by boiling both the blades 
and the bur bodies in a solution of washing soda. On the con- 
trary, if the blades are very loose, they should not be used at all, 
since they will make serious trouble; but if slightly loose and no 
others are available, the bodies may be put on an arbor and filed 
slightly with a dead smooth file, which will throw a slight bur 
over into the slots so that the blades will fit nicely. 



146 The Science of Knitting 



LANDER BUR 



The lander bur follows the sinker and raises the old stitch up 
on the point of the beard while the latter is held into the eye 
by the presser. 

The requirements to be met in adjusting the lander may be 
understood by considering its location. It runs closer to the 
leads — or cylinder if a trick-needle machine is used — than any 
of the other stitch-forming burs, since it is necessary for it to 
reach low in order to raise the old stitches surely, instead of 
punching through the fabric. On the upper side it comes very 
near to the presser, since it has to land the stitch while the beard 
is sunk in the eye, for raising the stitch before will make tuck 
stitches and raising after will not complete the new stitches. 
Moreover, the needles in the location of the lander have not only 
to drive the lander, but also to withstand the resistance of the 
presser, which holds them inward and backward a little; con- 
sequently, the needles cannot be depended on to keep their 
proper position, especially with a tight stitch, which puts con- 
siderable work on the lander and on the driving needles. The 
requirements show that the lander should run as near as possible, 
without touching, to the leads or the cylinder (as the case may 
be), and as near as possible to the presser without touching it and 
allowance should be made for deflection of the driving needles 
inward and backward. The necessity for this allowance accounts 
for the popular rule to set the bur loosely, because if set tight, 
the displacement of the needles will still further tighten it. 
However, it is evident that if the bur is too loose, it will over- 
reach so that the end of a blade will buck the oncoming needle. 
The point of contact is low on the shank of the needle where it 
cannot give very much, so the result is either bruising of both 
the needle and the end of the blade, bending outward of the 
needle, or breakage of the blade. The bruising causes tearing 
and cutting of the yarn, the bending outward of the needles 
destroys their alignment in a manner which is readily recognized, 
since needle displacement is generally inward and a broken 
lander blade generally causes a tuck stitch whenever that blade 
comes into action. 

One of the most frequent sources of cutting is a rough lander 
blade. One reason for this is the facility with which it can be 
roughened, owing to its proximity to the presser and to the 
rigidity of the needle with which it interferes. 



Cast-off Bur % 147 

Sometimes a thread of waste winds around the lander stud 
and raises the bur so that it interferes with the presser. This 
causes a pecuHar grinding sound when stationary pressers are 
used, but nicks and raises a round brass presser. The nicking 
of the brass presser is hkely to be manifested by the appearance 
of tucks or cuts, whereas the raising of it prevents clearing the 
old stitches, and, consequently, leaves the yarn floated on the 
back of the fabric instead of being knit. 

A loose lander stud will sometimes allow the bur to take a 
sudden dip into the leads, in which case a blade is likely to be 
broken out. Also a weak lander-bur support is likely to spring 
downward under the load at full speed, and to allow the blades 
to interfere with the leads or the cylinder according to whether 
leaded or trick needles are used. 



CAST-OFF BUR 

The cast-off bur raises the old loops from the swell of the beards, 
where the lander left them, up and off the heads of the needles, 
which is the stitch-finishing operation. This duty is much like 
that of the lander's, but it is favored by unrestricted space, which 
allows large diameter of bur, and affords the added advantage 
of more blades in mesh for secure driving. Still more, the cast- 
off blades may be set farther through the needles which also 
provides security. There is an offset to this in that the cast-off 
works near the tops of the needles where they are most pliable. 
But altogether the cast-off is considered the easiest bur to set; 
or, if it is well set, it is the least troublesome. 

The common rule is to set the cast-off tight, since the back- 
ward bend of the needles in action loosens the cast-off less than 
the lander. The ideal position is supposed to be that which 
allows the entering blade to keep close to the forward needle, since 
this provides space for a backward pull under an overload, 
and allows the leaving blade to withdraw midway between the 
adjoining needles. Evidently to obtain this, the driving must 
be done against the blades which are well in mesh, which requires 
good design and correct adjustment. The absence of either of 
these puts so much work on the leaving needle that it snaps free 
with a force that vibrates it like a tuning fork. It is likely that 
this vibration shortens the life of the needle. Some knitters be- 
lieve that in time it snaps the beards off. But at least, excessive 



148 Thei Science of Knitting 

pressure is likely to shear the yarn, especially at knots, by pinch- 
ing the loop between the blade and the head of the needle. 

The cast-off blades like those of the lander have a draw-cut 
action, so cutting is likely if they are sharp or nicked. Con- 
sequently, every precaution should be observed to get good 
blades with which to start. After that the principal cause of 
nicking is twisted beards. The cast-off blade, entering as it 
does from behind the needle, cannot get into the eye, neither 
can it get under the beard unless the latter is bent considerably 
to one side. But it is sometimes bent so by the sinker. The 
result is that the rising cast-off blade, entering between the beard 
and the shank, forces the beard off and nicks itself so that every 
time it touches the stitch it cuts some or all of the fibers. 

The cast-off burs generally used in America have rounded 
points, which permit the blade to slip past a load-up, particularly 
if the needles spring outward to assist so doing. This method 
of casting off evidently lacks the positiveness of cast-off jacks, so 
the fabric from loop-wheel machines frequently lacks uniformity 
through this somewhat haphazard method of casting-off, unless 
other means are used for securing equal stitches. A rotary 
cast-off bur with a positive action simulating that of cast-off 
jacks is used to some extent, but it requires rather short needles 
in order to obtain a sufficiently positive drive to perform the 
harder work which it has to do. 

The cast-off is supposed to be set sufficiently high to clear 
the stitches surely, and yet without cutting the stitch or causing 
one loop to steal from another. If it is too low, some stitches 
will not clear sufficiently, which causes very irregular fabric, or 
may not clear at all, which causes tucks. If the cast-off is too 
high, it will strain the stitches so that a cut will occur at a weak 
place in the yarn or at a rough place in the blade; or if not so 
high as to cut, the strain on the stitch may be sufficient to make 
the new stitch draw some yarn from the loop ahead, which stitch 
in its turn will do the same; but since the amount of yarn thus 
drawn is variable, the stitches must be irregular. 



Weight of Leaded Needles 
Spring-needle Dimensions and Data 



149 



1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 












Needle 


Needle 


Sinker- 


Space 
between 


Yarn 


Gauge 


Dia. 


Length 


Beard 


Cramp 


space, 


space, 


thick- 


needle 


space 












gross 


net 


ness 


and 
blade 


(iof 9) 


5 


.1200 


2.30 


.70 


.060 












7 


.0800 


2.10 


.70 


.050 












8 


.0570 


2.00 


.65 


.040 


.1971 


.1401 


.020 


.1201 


.0600 


10 


.0510 


1.85 


.55 


.030 


.1562 


.1052 


.020 


.0852 


.0426 


12 


.0475 


1.70 


.53 


.027 


.1290 


.0815 


.020 


.0615 


.0307 


14 


.0415 


1.70 


.51 


.023 


.1102 


.0687 


.020 


.0487 


.0243 


16 


.0390 


1.57 


.48 


.020 


.0961 


.0571 


.016 


.0411 


.0205 


18 


.0355 


1.48 


.40 


.016 


.0852 


.0497 


.016 


.0337 


.0168 


20 


.0315 


1.48 


.38 


.016 


.0766 


.0451 


.016 


>0291 


.0145 


22 


.0290 


1.48 


.36 


.013 


.0696 


.0406 


.010 


.0306 


.0153 


24 


.0280 


1.45 


.32 


.012 


.0636 


.0356 


.010 


.0256 


.0128 


26 


.0260 


1.31 


.32 


.009 


.0586 


.0326 


.010 


.0226 


.0113 


28 


.0260 


1.40 


.30 


.006 


.0544 


.0284 


.009 


.0194 


'.0097 


30 


.0230 


1.31 


.25 


.004 


.0508 


.0278 


.009 


.0188 


.0094 


32 


.0220 


1.28 






.0476 


.0256 








34 


.0220 








.0447 


.0227 








36 


.0200 


1.17 


.24 


.003 


.0422 


.0222 


.006 


.0162 


.0081 


38 


.0190 


















40 


.0190 



















This table is based on average needle dimensions from a 
prominent spring-needle manufacturer, and on average blade 
thickness of a prominent loop-wheel machine. Both the needle 
company and the machine company emphasize the quite well- 
known fact that there are but few if any recognized standards 
for needle and sinker design. Therefore, this table is not to be 
taken as final, but rather as an initial basis from actual practice, 
with the help of which more refined tables may be made after 
the principles of needle and sinker design are better understood. 

Approximate Weight in Pounds per Thousand of Leaded Needles for Spring- 
needle Loop-wheel Machine 









1 






Gauge 


Pounds 


Gauge 


Pounds 


Gauge 


Pounds 


12 


15.0 


20 


8.1 


28 


5.7 


14 


11.7 


22 


7.3 


30 


5.4 


16 


10.2 


24 


6.6 


32 


5.2 


18 


9.1 


26 


6.1 


34 


5.0 



150 



The Science of Knitting 
Spring-needle Loop-wheel Knitting 



Trouble 


Cause 


Remedy 


Small hole with 


Rough or nicked blade is 


Polish or replace blade. 


single cut in 


in lander or cast-off. 




yarn. 


Sinker bur is too tight or too 


Readjust or replace 




loose, so that blade binds the 


sinker. 




yarn against the needle. 






Eyes of needles are too long or 


Shorten the beards or 




too low, so that the yarn cuts 


eyes, or use larger 




in the sinking of the stitch. 


sinker. 




Eyes of needles are too shal- 


Replace needles. 




low, so that the point of the 






beard is not covered. 






Beards are turned to one side 


Replace needles or re- 




or the other. 


pair the mold. 




Lander is set so tight or so 


Readjust or replace the 




loose that it cuts the stitch 


lander. 




against needles. 






Lander blades cut the stitch 


Readjust the lander or 




against the presser. 


presser, or both. 




Cast-off is so high as to break 


Depress the cast-off. 




the stitch. 






Clearing bur cuts the stitch 


Elevate clearing bur or 




against the leads or cylinder. 


move push down 
ahead. 




Push down is so far inward 


Move the push down 




that the stitch is pulled tight 


out or reduce take-up 




on the needle and is cut dur- 


tension. 




ing pushing down. 




A series of drop 


Yarn drops down off the sink- 


Elevate the guide, put 


stitches without 


er. (This is characterized 


tension on the yarn. 


a break in the 


by a tight thread crossing 


or use a blade with 


yarn. 


the hole.) 


a more prominent 
nib. 




Yarn at the sinker bur runs 


Lower the guide, or 




up over the beards. (This 


sinker, or shorten the 




is characterized by a loose 


beard. 




thread crossing the hole.) 






Yarn drops out from under 


Cramp the needle 




the beards between the 


beard, use the sta- 




sinker and the presser. 


tionary presser ex- 




(Characterized same as 


tending from under 




No. 2.) 


the sinker to the 
lander; dampen the 
yarn. 




Push down rolls the stitches 


Move the push down 




on the outside of beard. 


back from the nee- 




(Characterized same as 


dles, increase the 




No. 2.) 


take-up tension or use 
a wire tension against 
the cloth ahead of the 
push down and above 

it. 

1 



Trouble, Cause, and Remedy 
Spring-needle Loop-wheel Knitting 



151 



Trouble 


Cause 


Remedy 


Tears or long rag- 


Lander is too high. 


Lower the lander. 


ged holes or a 


Lander blades are too blunt. 


Use a new lander. 


series of them. 


Take-up is slack. 


Increase the take-up 
tension or use a ten- 
sion wire on the cloth 
above and behind 
the push down. 




Heel of the push down is too 

low. 
Push down bears on the lan- 


Elevate the push down. 




Move push down for- 




der. 


ward. 




Push down bears on the leads 


Elevate the push down. 




or the cylinder. 






Needles are rough or tarnished. 


Polish by running with 
a strong yarn and a 
loose stitch. 


Tucks in a verti- 


The needle beard is low so that 


Replace the needl^. 


cal line. 


the 3-arn is split and part re- 
mains on the outside of the 
beard. 






The needle is bent inwardly so 


Bend it outwardly. 




that it is not completely 






pressed. 






The needle is loose in the lead 


Replace if leaded, or re- 




or trick. 


new the leather if 
trick. 




The needle is weak, owing to 


Replace the needle. 




deficient temper, so that it 






bends away from the presser. 






A mote or seed is lodged in the 


Remove the obstruc- 




head of the needle, so that 


tion. 




the stitch will not cast-off 






readily. 




Single drop 


The sinker bur is clogged with 


Clean sinker bur. 


stitches. 


lint so that the beard is 
pressed down and the yarn 
cannot get under it. (If 
successive spaces are clogged 
a succession of drops will be 
caused.) 


■ 




The sinker bur is so tight that 


Readjust the sinker or 




the blades brush a beard 


use one that runs 




down so that the yarn can- 


more freely. 




not get in under it. 






The yarn is dropping out from 


See " Series of drop 




under beard after leaving 


stitches without a 




sinker or running out of the 


break in the yarn." 




j'arn groove on the sinker 




1 


bur. 





152 


The Science of Knitting 




Spring-needle Loop-wheel Knitting 


Trouble 


Cause 


Remedy 


Rows of tight 


The gmde is clogged with lint. 


Clean the guide and 


stitches. 


This may make a number of 


polish the periphery 




courses of tight stitches be- 


of the hole or enlarge 




fore the yarn breaks or the 


the hole. 




lint pulls through and runs 




• 


into the needles. 








• Rough barrel. 


Replace bobbin. 






Coils pulled under 


Use quicker traverse or 






others. 


more tension in wind- 




Pull from 




ing. 




bobbin . 


Incorrect distance 


Elevate or depress bob- 




due to 


from thread eye. 


bin to point of freest 
delivery. 






Bobbin not under 


Place bobbin so yarn 






eye. 


delivery is uniform 






all around. 






Wrong position. 


See above. 






Friction on side of 


Use cone with more 






cone. 


taper, or increase 




Pull from 




speed of knitting ma- 




cone due' 




chine. 




to 


Knot or seed on 


Remove obstruction or 






side of cone. 


turn by hand until it 
is removed. 






^ Underwinds. 


Improve the winding. 




Sinker bur cramped so that 


Readjust bur or replace 




the blades bind the needles 


with one properly de- 




and bend them inwardlj' so 


signed. 




that full stitch is not taken. 




Beards of the nee- 


The stop motion claw may be 


Draw the claw back. 


dles broken off. 


so close to the needles that it 
catches a high beard. 






The toe of the fiat presser is so 


Round the toe of the 




sharp that it gets in under a 


presser. 




high beard. 






The cast-off is so far through 


Move the cast-off in- 




the needles that it pushes 


wardly. 




the stitch out against the 






beards and breaks them off. 






■ The presser is set so hard that 


Press lighter or farther 




the beard is pressed down 


toward the point of 




flat and breaks at the head 


the beard. 




or cramp. 






The guide is too close to the 


Move the guide out. 




needles. 






The sinker bur backs out for a 


Tighten the spring in 




bunch and does not return 


the sinker tube. 




fully to position. 






The guide strikes sinker caus- 


Move the guide away, 




ing it to over-reach. 


or if it is too flexible 
to retain its position 
against the tension of 
the yarn, use a heav- 
ier guide. 



Tuck-stitch Figures — Latch-needle 153 

Spring-needle Loop-wheel Knitting 



Trouble 


Cause 


Remedy 


Needles breakinsc 


The lander bur is over-reach- 


Set the lander to run 


at the lead or 


ing so that blades buck 


tighter in the needles. 


trick. 


needles. 




. 


The presser is set so deep as 


Press lighter. 




to bend needles too much. 






The needles are too short. 


Use longer needles. 




Occurs when yarn is heavj- 






or wiry, and stitch is long as 






in knitting linen or ramie. 






The cast-off is set so tight as to 


Set the cast-off looker. 




snap the needles as they 






leave. 




Tucks made at 


The round presser is nicked by 


Turn down the presser. 


random. 


bruise or by striking the 
lander blades so that it acts 
as a tuck presser. 






A bent blade in the sinker 


Replace the blade. , 




is brushing down a needle 






beard occasionally so that 






the yarn comes up outside of 






the beard. 


. 




The cast-off blade is broken or 


Insert a blade. 




out so that the stitch is not 






cast off. 





TUCK-STITCH FIGURES — LATCH-NEEDLE 

The needles in latch-needle knitting machinery are operated 
jy carris, and the angles of these cams cannot be so steep as to 
operate one needle at a time, for if they were so steep, then the 
Dutts would be sheared off. But to produce tuck figure de- 
signs it is desirable to be able to make any one needle tuck or 
knit. Consequently, some other device than the cam is needed 
to operate the needles. The most used device is a wheel which 
takes the place of the final rise on the raising cam. The first 
part of the raising cam, which brings the needles to the tuck 
po.sition, is left just as in the ordinary machine. If the wheel 
had no cuts in its edge, the machine would knit plain fabric 
just as if the ordinary raising cam were used; for after the needle 
had been raised to the tucking position by the fixed cam, the 
butt would come to the fiat upper face of the wheel and be 
raised farther so that the needle would knit, as the angle of the 



154 








The Science of Knitting 














Needles in 


Tompkin's Spring-needle Leaded Cylinders 


















Gauge 










Dia. 




























12 


14 


16 


18 


20 


22 


24 


26 


28 


30 


32 


34 


36 


9 


218 


256 


294 


331 


369 


406 


444 


481 


519 


556 


594 


632 


669 


10 


243 


285 


326 


368 


410 


451 


493 


535 


577 


618 


660 


702 


743 


11 


267 


313 


359 


405 


451 


497 


543 


589 


635 


680 


726 


772 


818 


12 


291 


342 


392 


442 


492 


542 


592 


642 


693 


742 


798 


843 


892 


13 


306 


370 


424 


479 


533 


587 


641 


696 


750 


804 


858 


913 


967 


14 


340 


399 


457 


516 


574 


632 


691 


749 


808 


866 


924 


983 


1041 


15 


364 


427 


490 


553 


615 


677 


740 


803 


866 


928 


990 


1053 


1115 


16 


389 


456 


523 


589 


656 


723 


790 


856 


924 


990 


1056 


1124 


1190 


17 


413 


484 


555 


626 


697 


768 


839 


910 


981 


1052 


1122 


1194 


1264 


18 


437 


513 


588 


663 


738 


813 


888 


963 


1039 


1113 


1189 


1264 


1339 


19 


462 


541 


621 


700 


779 


858 


938 


1017 


1097 


1175 


1255 


1335 


1413 


20 


486 


570 


653 


737 


820 


903 


987 


1071 


1155 


1237 


1321 


1405 


1487 


21 


510 


598 


686 


774 


861 


949 


1037 


1124 


1212 


1299 


1387 


1475 


1562 


22 


535 


627 


719 


811 


902 


994 


1086 


1178 


1270 


1361 


1453 


1545 


1636 


23 


559 


656 


751 


847 


943 


1039 


1135 


1231 


1328 


1423 


1519 


1616 


1711 


24 


583 


684 


784 


884 


984 


1084 


1185 


1285 


1386 


1485 


1585 


1686 


1785 


25 


608 


713 


817 


921 


1025 


1129 


1234 


1338 


1443 


1547 


1651 


1756 


1895 


26 


632 


741 


849 


958 


1066 


1175 


1283 


1392 


1501 


1608 


1717 


1826 


1934 


27 


656 


770 


882. 


995 


1107 


1220 


1333 


1445 


1559 


1670 


1783 


1897 


2008 


28 


681 


798 


915 


1032 


1148 


1265 


1382 


1499 


1617 


1732 


1849 


1967 


2083 


29 


705 


827 


948 


1069 


1189 


1310 


1432 


1552 


1674 


1794 


1915 


2037 


2157 


30 


729 


855 


980 


1106 


1230 


1355 


1481 


1606 


1732 


1856 


1981 


2107 


2231 


31 


754 


884 


1013 


1142 


1271 


1401 


1530 


1660 


1790 


1918 


2047 


2178 


2306 


32 


778 


912 


1046 


1179 


1312 


1446 


1580 


1713 


1848 


1980 


2113 


2248 


2380 


33 


802 


941 


1078 


1216 


1353 


1491 


1629 


1767 


1905 


2042 


2179 


2318 


2455 



face of the wheel (not the edge) is just that of the higher part of 
the raising cam. But the object of the wheel is not to make all 
of the needles knit, but to make certain of them tuck This is 
accomplished by cutting grooves in the edge of the wheel, wide 
enough and far enough apart to let some needle butts enter. 
From this it follows that the wheel must revolve. In revolving 
it meshes with the butts just as a gear does with the teeth of 
another gear. The needles whose butts enter the spaces in the 
wheel are not raised above the tucking position, so they tuck; 
but the needle butts for which no spaces are provided ride up 
on the face of the wheel and are, consequently, raised so that 
these needles knit. • 

Suppose that one feed is used with a pattern wheel cut so as 
to catch every second butt in a space and the others on the 
face of the wheel. Then every needle which enters a space will 
tuck, and every one which does not will knit. If the number of 



Vertical Patterns in Latch-needle Knitting 155 

needles in the cylinder is even, then the same needles will tuck 
every time around, and the machine will become loaded up; 
but if an odd number of needles is used, then the needles which 
tuck one time will clear the next, and so produce fabric con- 
taining diagonal tuck stitches. From this it is evident that the 
number of needles in the cylinder is determined to an extent by 
the arrangement of the cuts in the pattern wheel But if there 
are two feeds, then the second one may be provided with the 
regular cams and so clear all the tucks; or it may be provided 
with a pattern wheel so designed that each one will clear the 
tucks of the other. The number of feeds is not restricted to 
one or two, but may be any number which space will allow, and 
all or part of them may have pattern pressers according to the 
design to be made. The conditions to be met and ways to 
meet them are explained under the heading Figure Designing 
with Pattern Wheels. 

Machines such as the one just described, that is, with an odd 
number of cylinder needles (no dial) and two feeds, each with a 
knit-one-tuck-one pattern, are used for making incandescent 
mantles. Each wale consists of two tuck stitches followed by 
two plain stitches. 



VERTICAL PATTERNS IN LATCH-NEEDLE KNITTING 

Vertical effects in the fabric are generally caused by differ- 
ences in the needles. It is possible to obtain some vertical 
effects otherwise, as by an automatic striper changing every 
half-revolution of the machine, but very narrow effects could 
not be so obtained. 

It happens sometimes on a two-feed machine that a needle 
becomes roughened so that it does not clear, i.e., tucks, at one 
feed, but knits under the extra pull of the second loop at the other 
feed. Suppose it is a cylinder needle. Then it makes a verti- 
cal stripe one wale in width but with only half as many courses 
per inch as the rest of the fabric, because the thread which was 
taken where the needle tucked is not drawn through into the face 
but Hes back out of sight. Suppose this hidden thread is black 
and the other thread is white. Then the pattern is a white 
vertical stripe in a field of alternate black and white horizontal 
stripes one course in width. 

Several facts may be noted from this illustration. 



156 The Science of Knitting 

1. A vertical effect may be caused by making one wale differ- 
ent from another owing to a difference in its needle from the 
other's. Evidently these different needles might be spaced or 
grouped in different ways. 

2. The yarn which is fed where a stitch is tucked is hidden, 
whereas the held loop is pulled through upon the face of the 
goods, 

3. The number of courses in the tucked wale is 2> 3 or j of 
those in the plain wales according as the needle clears at the 
second, third or fourth feed. For instance, on single tuck the 
needle tucks at the first feed and clears at the second feed, so 
its wale has only ^ as many courses per inch as the plain rib 
fabric; and on double tuck the needle tucks at the first feed, 
then at the second and finally clears at the third, so its wale 
has i the number of courses per inch as the plain rib fabric. 

Now, if a needle can produce a different effect by accident, it 
can be intentionally made to produce a different effect. Two 
obvious methods of changing its action are (1) to unload it en- 
tirely by dropping its stitch, or (2) to load it up with one or more 
extra threads. The second method is the one involved in this 
discussion. 

The loading up of any one needle independently of the others 
is considered to the best advantage on a two-feed machine. It I 
is generally accomplished in one of two ways. 

1. By the use of a long latch on the needle to be loaded. 

2. By reduction of the travel of the needle to be loaded. 
The No. 1 method may be used with a single cam race, whereas 

the No. 2 method requires more than one cam race. 

Consider the No, 1 method used in an imaginary rib machine 
with ten needles and with two feeds, with black yarn at one 
feed, white yarn at the other feed and with long latches in four 
adjacent needles. The machine may have a dial or not. If it 
has a dial, the inside of the fabric will show black and white 
courses alternately. If it has no dial the alternate courses will 
still be black and white except that where the tucking occurs, 
the color which is kept out of the face will appear in the back. 
Set the raising cam at the black feed so that all of the latches 
clear, i.e., all knit, and set the raising cam at the white feed so 
that the four long latches do not clear, i.e., so they tuck. Then 
the six short latch needles will knit at each feed to make a gray 
field composed of alternate black and white courses, but the 



Vertical Patterns in Latch-needle Knitting 157 

four long latch needles, instead of pulling the white yarn through 
upon the face of the goods, will merely hold it until the black 
feed is reached, when each will leave the white hidden by draw- 
ing another black loop through the black stitch it already has. 
The pattern will be a black vertical stripe of double length 
stitches, four wales in width, in a gray field composed of alter- 
nate black and white courses. 

Now elevate the raising cam at the white feed so that the long 
latches are cleared there also. Then all of the needles knit alter- 
nate black and white courses, which terminate the black stripe. 
That is, the vertical effect produced by the long-latch needles 
may be stopped by raising them enough to clear theu* latches; 
and it may be started again by depressing the raising cam. Or 
the raising cam at the black feed might be depressed so that the 
long latches would be held there, in which case the pattern would 
be a white block of double length stitches, four wales in width, 
and still in the field of alternate black and white course^. 

Summary — Long and Short Latches 

With a machine having two feeds of different colors and 
needles with long and short latches, a vertical stripe on the long- 
latch needles may be : 

(1) Made by not clearing the long latches at the feed whose 
color is to be hidden. 

(2) Terminated by clearing the long latches at that feed. 

(3) Reversed in color by not clearing the long latches at the 
other feed. 

From No. 2 it is evident that both raising cams may be raised 
BO that all of the needles knit plain fabric as though their latches 
were just aUke. It also follows that one raising cam may be 
lowered so that all of the needles tuck at that feed (whether long 
latches are used or not), in which case all must knit at the other 
feed in order to clear the stitches; the result of which is that the 
color which is cleared conceals the other color throughout, and 
makes what is called the a ccord i on s titch when a dial is used and 
all the dial needles knit. 

One peculiarity should be noticed in reversing the color of the 
stripe by causing the long-latch needles to tuck at the reverse 
feed. Suppose the cams are reversed simultaneously (1) just 
after the long-latch needles have tucked and (2) just after they 
have cleared. In either case, since the cams are reversed, the 



158 The Science of Knitting 

needles with long latches must repeat at the next feed what they 
did at the last, i.e., in the first case must make a second tuck, or 
in the second case must clear a second time. In other words, it 
is impossible to make the change without knitting half a course 
at the new feed just as it was knit at the preceding feed, whether 
that was tucked or cleared. If, rather than to change the color 
of the stripe by a reversal of the cams, it is changed by a reversal 
of the yarns, as with automatic stripers, the half course of extra 
tucks or extra plain stitches will not have to be made. 

Now go back to the imaginary two-feed machine with the four 
needles with long latches tucking at the white feed, thus knitting 
a black stripe, and the short-latch needles knitting an alternate 
black and white course field. Suppose that the lengths of the 
latches were instantly transposed, i.e., that the long latches 
became short, and vice versa. The stripe would then become 
alternate black and white courses, and the field would become 
black, i.e., the whole pattern would be exactly reversed, which 
was impossible before when only the stripe could be changed by 
making use of the difference in the lengths of the latches. 

This complete reversal can be obtained in practice by the 
second method, that is by making the travel of some of the 
needles different from others with the use of a double cam race. 
There is the additional advantage that the alternate black and 
white field may be eliminated, when a dial is used, by tucking and 
clearing at alternate feeds instead of at one feed, so that the 
stripe may be black and the field white or vice versa. Otherwise, 
the same conditions hold as for long and short latches. 

(1) The color fed where a latch is not cleared is hidden, 

(2) A latch not cleared at one feed must clear at another. 

(3) A vertical stripe on certain needles may be made, re- 
versed, or terminated, respectively, by not clearing their latches 
at one feed, by -not clearing at the other feed, by clearing at 
both feeds. 

(4) If the pattern is reversed by a reversal of the cams, the 
needles with tucks add a tuck at the next feed and the needles 
which have just cleared, clear again at the next feed. 

(5) A reversal of pattern by reversal of the yarn does not in- 
troduce the extra tucks or the extra plain stitches. 

(6) Plain rib may be made by clearing all needles at both feeds 
or accordion (with use of a dial with all dial needles knitting), by 
clearing all needles at either feed and tucking at the other feed. 



Velocity of Yarn and Needles 



159 



Diametral r.p.m., and Feet and Yards of Yarn Used per Minute per Feed by 
the Latch-needle Rib Machine 



Dia. 
r.p.m. 


Needle velocity per 
minute 


Yarn velocity per min- 
ute (4 inches of needles 
to 1 foot of yarn) 


Difference be- 
tween velocity 
of yarn and 
needles, feet 
per minute 




Feet 


Yards 


Feet 


Yards 


100 


26.2 


8.7 


78.5 


26,2 


52.36 


120 


31.4 


10.5 


94.3 


31.4 


62.83 


140 


36.7 


12.2 


110.0 


36.7 


73.30 


160 


41.9 


14.0 


126.0 


41.9 


83.80 


180 


47.1 


15.7 


141.0 


47 1 


94.25 


200 


52.4 


17.5 


157.0 


52.4 


104.70 


220 


57.6 


19.2 


173.0 


57.6 


115.20 


240 


62.8 


20.9 


189.0 


62.8 


125.70 


260 


68.1 


22.7 


204.0 


68.1 


136.10 


280 


73.3 


24.4 


220.0 


73.3 


146.60 


300 


78.6 


26.2 


236.0 


78 6 


157.10 


320 


83.8 


27.8 


251,0 


83.8 


167 .'50 


340 


89.0 


29.7 


267.0 


89.0 


178 00 


360 


94.2 


31.4 


283.0 


94.2 


188.50 


380 


99.5 


33.2 


298.0 


99.5 


199.00 


400 


105.0 


35.0 


314.0 


105.0 


209.40 


420 


110.0 


36.7 


330.0 


110.0 


219.90 


440 


115.0 


38.3 


346.0 


115.0 


230.40 


460 


120,0 ~ 


40.0 


361.0 


120.0 


240.90 


480 


126.0 


42.0 


377.0 


126.0 


251.30 


500 


131.0 


43.7 


393.0 


131.0 


261.80 


520 


136.0 


45.3 


408.0 


136.0 


272.30 


540 


141.0 


47.0 


424.0 


141.0 


282.70 


560 


147.0 


49.0 


440.0 


147,0 


293.20 


580 


152.0 


50.6 


456.0 


152,0 


303.70 


600 


157.0 


52.4 


471.0 


157,0 


314.20 


620 


162.0 


54.0 


487.0 


162,0 


324.60 


640 


168.0 


56.0 


503.0 


168,0 


335.10 


660 


173.0 


57.7 


518.0 


173.0 


345.60 


680 


178.0 


59.4 


534.0 


178.0 


356.10 


700 


183.0 


61.0 


550.0 


183.0 


366.50 


720 


188.0 


62.6 


565.0 


188,0 


377.00 


740 


194.0 


64.7 


581.0 


194,0 


387.50 


760 


199.0 


66.4 


597.0 


199.0 


397.90 


800 


209.0 


69.7 


628.0 


209.0 


418.90 


820 


215.0 


71,7 


644.0 


215.0 


429.40 


840 


220.0 


73.4 


660.0 


220.0 


439.80 


860 


225.0 


75.0 


675.0 


225.0 


450.30 


880 


230.0 


76.7 


691.0 


230.0 


460.80 


900 


235.0 


78.4 


707.0 


235.0 


471.20 



The average yarn velocity of circular loop-wheel knitting 
machinery is 86 per cent of the above for the same needle 
velocity. 



160 The Science of Knitting 



NAMES OF CAMS 



Cams are divided into two general classes: namely, working 
cams, which transmit the work of forming the stitch^ or of simi- 
lar operations; and guard cams, which keep the needles from 
traveling too far after leaving a working cam. In other words, 
the guard cams are those which combine with the working cams 
to close the cam races and so keep the needle butts in a restricted 
path. The usual working cams are the stitch cam, which propels 
the needle when it is drawing the stitch; the landing cam, which 
projects the needle slightly immediately after the stitch is drawn; 
and the raising cam, which projects the needle preparatory to 
drawing the stitch, and which generally contains two rises, one 
to open the latch and hold it open until the yarn carrier is 
reached, and the other to clear the latch where the yarn carrier 
will keep it from closing before the yarn gets under the hook. A 
switch cam is one which changes the path of the needle butts, 
much as a railroad switch changes the path of the train. Switch 
cams are generally a combination of working and guard cam, since 
it is desirable to control the travel of the butt especially in high- 
speed machines. There are exceptions to this, as in some auto- 
matic hosiery machines, in which guard cams are seldom used, 
since the friction of the needle in its slot and in the work is suffi- 
cient to keep it from traveling too far. Switch cams are of two 
general kinds, sliding and swinging, or wing cams. 

ADJUSTING IN GENERAL 

Remember that screws, etc., have to be proportioned according 
to their uses and that consequently the force applied to them 
should be limited according to their size. Use screw-drivers of 
the proper width and ground like screw-drivers instead of like 
chisels. Use wrenches with straight parallel jaws. Use judg- 
ment in forcing screws, especially hardened ones, since they are 
not easily removed if the heads are broken. 

Always make a definite adjustment, such as a quarter turn, 
a half division, etc., and remember just what it was, so that it 
can be halved or doubled or retracted entirely according to the 
indications of the results. The habit of making only definite 
adjustments is especially desirable with knitting machinery in 
which the different parts are frequently duplicated many times, 
as in the feeds, of which 8, 12, 16, etc., may be used. 



Putting Needles into Ribber 161 

Make only one independent adjustment at a time. For 
instance, if the cylinder-stitch cam is elevated, which shortens 
the stitch, the dial stitch which is dependent on it may break 
unless the dial-stitch cam is brought outward. But do not bring 
out the dial-stitch cam and depress the dial at the same time, 
since if the result is unsatisfactory, it is difficult to tell which of 
the two changes should be rectified. A now engineer in a promi- 
nent knitting mill adjusted the whole engine in one evening and 
the mill had to close for three days while a crew from the shop 
lined it up again. 

Tighten screws and nuts after temporary adjustment, since 
if something slips, more time may be lost in repairing damage 
than in loosening the screws or nuts for final adjustment. 

After adjustment of any automatic change mechanism, turn 
the machine through the change by hand, since for many such 
adjustments there are positive limits which appear only during 
operation and if they are exceeded with the power on, damage is 
almost inevitable. 

When dissembling any part of the machine, notice the order 
in which it comes apart, for use in reversing that order in re- 
assembling. Corresponding parts are frequently marked to 
correspond, with numbers or prick punch marks. These should 
be followed carefully in reassembling. This is especially impor- 
tant in replacing the cross bar. 

PUTTING NEEDLES INTO RIBBER 

Nothing but the needles manipulates the yarn during the 
formation of the stitch, so it is essential that the needles be 
good. An absolutely perfect machine will not produce good re- 
sults with poor needles; and since the needles are more readily 
changed than the machine, it is always well to look first to the 
needles in case of trouble. It is best to look the needles over 
before putting them in the machine, for even if imperfect needles 
are the only ones available, knowledge of their characteristics 
will help to locate trouble if any develops. 

The slot for removal and replacement of cylinder needles is 
in the back cam casing, closed by a swing cover to keep dirt out 
of the cam race. To remove a needle, swing back the cover and 
bring the slot opposite the needle to be removed. With a needle 
held in one hand hook the head of the needle to be removed and 
draw it up until the butt is near the spring-band, draw the 



162 The Science of Knitting 

spring-band out with a coarse needle held in the other hand, and 
continue drawing the needle upward and out of the slot. Hold 
the new needle near the head, start the shank in the slot, pulling 
out the spring-band as before to clear the way for the butt, and 
press the needle down until it strikes the cam. 

The slot for removal and replacement of dial needles is under 
and behind the oil hole in the cap. With a needle held in the 
hand, hook the head of the dial needle and draw it out. About 
four needles may be removed through this slot without change 
in the position of the machine. If it is desired to remove sev- 
eral needles at one place, a convenient way to move the cap the 
right distance is to count four needles passed by the heel of the 
yarn carrier. This relieves the operator from stooping to look 
under the cap. 

Do not leave a needle part way in the slot. Put it all of the 
way in or take it out entirely, since if left otherwise, the power 
may be thrown on and the machine damaged. 

Do not turn the machine during removal or insertion of a nee- 
dle, as the needle may catch and necessitate the undesirabilit}'^ of 
turning the machine backward. 

Make sure that the needles do not bind, especially when 
inserting a number. Just how snugly they may fit has to be 
learned by experience. As a rule they may be tighter in a ribber 
than in a body machine, since resistance in a ribber can be more 
readily detected through the hand wheel. 

If the dial needles are snug, it is well to try each needle head 
first in its slot as the needle is likely to be widest through the 
rivet and binding in that location is not readily detected other- 
wise. 

Do not wedge the slots apart until every other means to loosen 
the needle has been tried. The slots are cut with greater ac- 
curacy than can be obtained by manipulation, so as often as one 
is forced it follows that the original accuracy is proportionately 
impaired. If a needle sticks, it may be due to variation in the 
needle, in which case try another one and keep on until one is 
found which will fit; or the slot may contain some dirt which 
needs to be cleaned out, or may have a bur at its end, which 
bur should be removed. 

If the needles fit tightly, it is well to oil them freely and run 
the machine without the work on it until they slide easily in the 
slots. It is always advisable to do this after the insertion of a 



Yarn for Latch-needle Rib Machine 



163 



new set of needles, since hooking on the cloth with a snug set of 
needles is not an easy operation, and if a load-up does occur, 
damage is very likely to result, since the double resistance is apt 
to be so great that an occasional butt will shear off rather than 
drive. 

A muffled thump is indication that a butt has caught seriously 
or has been cut off. In the latter case the dial should be raised 
or the cam casings should be removed, according to the location 
of the broken needle, and all broken parts should be found and 
pieced together to make sure that every piece is removed. 

When the cap is raised, the needles will remain in their proper 
position for replacement of the cap, but in removal of the cam 
casings, care should be taken either to leave the butts as they 
were in the cam race or to rearrange them so before replace- 
ment of the segments of the casing, otherwise the segments will 
not go down into place. The casing segments of a machine with 
many automatic changes are a little puzzling to replace until 
some familiarity with them is obtained, but they should never 
be forced. Careful examination will show how the needles 
should be arranged to permit replacement. 

Yarn for Latch-needle Rib Machine 



1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


Cut 


(Cut)2 


(Cut)2 

4 


(Cut)2 
5 


(Cut)2 
6 


(Cut)2 
7 


(Cut)2 
8 


3 


9 


2.3 


1.8 


1.5 


1.3 


1.1 


4 


16 


4.0 


3.2 


2.7 


2.3 


2.0 


5 


25 


6.3 


5.0 


4.2 


3.6 


3.1 


6 


36 


9.0 


7.2 


6.0 


5.1 


4.5 


7 


49 


12.3 


9.8 


8.2 


7.0 


6.1 


8 


64 


16.0 


12.8' 


10.8 


9.1 


8.0 


9 


81 


20.3 


16.2 


13.5 


11.6 


10.1 


10 


100 


25.0 


20.0 


16.7 


14.3 


12.5 


11 


121 


30.3 


26.2 


20.2 


17.3 


15.1 


12 


144 


36.0 


28.8 


24.0 


20.6 


18.0 


13 


169 


42.3 


33.8 


28.2 


24.2 


21.2 


14 


196 


49.0 


39.2 


32.7 


28.0 


24.5 



Column 5 shows the cotton number of yarn generally used 
for the corresponding cut, column 1. 

Columns 3 and 4 show yarn numbers lighter than usual and 



164 The Science of Knitting 

columns 6 and 7 yarn numbers heavier than usual. The numbers 
shown in column 7 are considered the heavy limit for single 
thread on the ordinary latch-needle rib machine. However, 
multiple-thread combinations with a somewhat heavier equiva- 
lent may be used. 

HOOKING FABRIC ON RIBBER 

It is assumed that the machine is a single feeder properly 
adjusted and ready to run, except that the cloth is not on the 
needles. 

See that all the latches are open. 

Unless there is room enough between the cylinder and dial to 
reach a needle down through, elevate the dial to provide suf- 
ficient room. 

Take a piece of fabric from a machine of about the same 
size, but loosely knit from soft yarn, trim square the end which 
will not ravel, pass it up through the cylinder, catch the edge 
with a needle in the hand, draw it up and hook it on the nearest 
cylinder needles. If the fabric used is too fine, or the stitch is 
too tight, the loops will not pass over the heads of the needles, 
or will break in so doing, which affords an insecure hold to 
start with. If the yarn of which the fabric is made is too strong, 
it will not break as it should when it gets caught under a hook, 
so that a severe pull, which may cause a butt to catch, is put 
on the needle. 

The best place to start hooking-on is right behind the feed, 
where the needles are drawn back to clear the stitch, but in 
some cases there is sufficient room between the two sets of 
needles at other places around the cylinder. 

If the cylinder is too small to admit the hand conveniently, 
the fabric may be pushed up on the end of a screw driver until 
a small section is- caught, and then the fabric must be drawn 
gently downward. 

With the dogless device the inside of the cylinder is per- 
fectly free from obstructions, but on other machines the fabric 
must be worked between the dogs sometime during the hooking- 
on, depending on the place where the operation is started. 

The amount of fabric hooked-on should be the least that will 
give a secure hold. If too much is hooked-on, the surplus should 
be trimmed off with shears, as otherwise it is likely to clog the 
needles before it gets down between them. 



Hooking Fabric on Ribber 165 

After the first section of the edge of the fabric is hooked, turn 
the machine ahead sHghtly, reach down with the hook, catch a 
following portion of the edge and hook it on, continuing thus 
until the cylinder needles begin to withdraw through the fabric. 
Thi'ead the yarn through the stop motion, through the hole in 
the top of the stud, or through the guide in the dogless attach- 
ment, if one is used, and finally through the yarn carrier and 
under the hooks of the cylinder needles, making sure that the 
hooks catch it, or else the fabric will clear and leave a place that 
will have to be patched afterward. 

The yarn used at the start should be strong and rather light 
and the stitch should not be tight, otherwise it will break or fail 
to clear readily. 

After the fabric starts into the feed, keep it pulled down enough 
to make sure that the cylinder latches will clear it going up and 
that it will pull clear of the needles as they draw all the way back, 
yet not enough to break the stitches. It is well to notice the 
feed frequently, as it is important to form the stitches properly 
or they may all break away, and necessitate an entirely new 
start. 

Continue the hooking-on as before, taking care not to hook on 
double thickness and not to catch the opposite side of the cloth, 
as double thickness will break or clog the needles, and catching 
the opposite side will leave insufficient cloth to go around and 
will not provide uniform tension, which is needed to begin with. 
When the starting place is reached, lap the fabric over itself two 
or thi'ee needles to make sure of a secure hold all around. 

If the fabric fails to go around, or is doubled, or for any reason 
promises to clog the needles, it is better to break the yarn out and 
clear the needles by a revolution of the machine with tension on 
the cloth, since it is better to make a new start than to bruise 
and bend the needles by a bad start. 

Sometimes the fabric may catch on the end of the center stem 
and seem to be short on that account. It may be fre^ by the 
hand reached up through the cylinder. 

If the yarn breaks in drawing over the dial needle, the dial may 
be too high, in which case lower it, with caution not to get it so 
low as to obstruct raw edges of the fabric, or a possible load-up, 
which is likely to occur right after hooking on. 

Watch the dial needles ahead of the feed and open any latches 
which may have closed. 



166 The Science of Knitting 

If the hooking-on seems fairly secure, start the cloth in the 
take-up. But if it is not secure, it is well to use hand tension a 
little longer, since if the stitches start to break, the hand can let 
up quickly, whereas the take-up may pull the fabric entirely free 
before the tension can be released. 

It is well to have the cloth in the take-up before the power is 
put on, since the take-up pull is much more dependable than the 
hand pull. 

After the power is put on, watch all around the needle line for 
loose yam and if any appears that does not quickly knit down, 
stop the machine, or the needles will become clogged, in which 
case hooks and latches get bent, latches get bruised by the carrier 
and butts get cut off. Pull the loose yarn clear of the needles, 
taking care not to injure the latter, and hook a small piece of cloth 
on the bare needles and keep hand tension on it until the hole 
mends ; or if the space is not large, take out the dial needles there, 
in which case the cylinder needles will generally pick up, after 
which the dial needles may be replaced and the rib knitting will 
start at once. 

For multiple-feed machines the operation is substantially the 
same, except that each feed must be threaded just before the 
fabric comes to it and all of the feeds should be watched to make 
sure that they are clearing the stitch properly until the raw edges 
are down out of the way, after which there is not much danger of 
trouble. 

RIBBER TAKE-UP 

The take-up is driven by a cotton band which may be adjusted 
when unhooked by twisting or untwisting according as it is to 
be tightened or loosened. 

The stop-off chain connects the take-up with the knock-off 
handle, and when properly adjusted releases the power if the 
band becomes too loose or comes off. It does not release the 
power if the pulley, miter gears or collars become loosened, so 
they should be tightened occasionally. 

The sheave-wheel shaft, worm, and miter gears should be kept 
well oiled, but the take-up rolls should not be oiled more than is 
necessary or the oil will run along them upon the fabric. 

The lightest tension is obtained when the weight hanger-rod 
is at its greatest extension back of the take-up and all the weights 
are on it. Moving the rod inward and removing the weights 
increase the tension, after which further increase is made by 



Locating Sources of Trouble in Rib Knitting 167 

reversal of the head of the rod to the front of the machine, addi- 
tion of weights and increase in its adjustment outward. 

To start the cloth between the rolls lift the worm to the top 
of its shaft and give it a partial turn which will keep it out of 
mesh. See that the fabric is not twisted; after which place the 
end between the rolls, turning the latter with the fingers until 
the end comes through on the lower side, then pull it up through 
the opening in the leg base, and keep pulling until the take-up 
stops rising. Give the worm a turn, so that it will drop into 
mesh, and release the fabric, replacing the end through the 
opening in the leg base. 

To remove the cloth, take hold of it below the take-up and draw 
it up through the opening in the leg base until the take-up is 
lifted. This raises the worm to the top of its shaft. Keep the 
tension on the cloth and give the worm a part turn to hold it up 
out of mesh. The cloth may then be withdrawn from between 
the rolls and the take-up is ready to restart. j 

LOCATING SOURCES OF TROUBLE IN RIB KNITTING 

One of the most frequent troubles is a vertical streak caused 
by a particular needle. If it is caused by a closed latch, a glance 
at the needles above the location of the streak will generally show 
it. If it is not found in this way, take out a dial needle where 
the trouble seems to be and run the fabric down below the head 
base. If the streak has continued, count the number of wales 
between it and the intentional drop-stitch streak, which is the 
number of cylinder needles between the removed dial needle and 
the defective needle. If the streak is intermittent, as is frequently 
the case with drop stitches, put the head of a needle, back down- 
ward, in the intentional drop-stitch streak and follow down until 
opposite the last defect; there count the number of needles be- 
tween the two streaks and locate the defective needle as before. 

If the trouble manifests itself in horizontal lines, i.e., along a 
particular course instead of a particular wale, the cause is at a 
feed instead of at a needle. Mark the yarn at any convenient 
feed with a black oil spot, run the spot below the head base and 
count the courses between the marked course and the one showing 
the defect. This number is the number of feeds between that 
at which the mark was made and the defective one. If the de- 
fective course is below the marked course, then the defective feed 
is ahead of the marked feed. 



168 The Science of Knitting 

STITCH ADJUSTMENT 

The stitch is important, not only because it is the essential 
factor next to the diameter of the yarn which decides the struc- 
tm-al characteristics of the fabric, but because correct stitch ad- 
justment is necessary for good results in the operation of the 
machine. By stitch is meant the length of yarn in the loop. 
It is necessary to distinguish stitch as applied to the loop from 
stitches per foot of yarn. When the stitches per foot are in- 
creased, the stitch or individual loop is shortened and vice versa. 
The stitch is determined first by the size of the yarn and there- 
after by the requirements of weight, appearance, and feel of 
the fabric. To lengthen the stitch, that is, to increase the yarn 
in each stitch, is to lengthen the loop, and to make the fabric 
loose or sleazy, if the original stitch was normal; and to shorten 
the stitch, that is, to decrease the yarn in each stitch, is to 
shorten the loop, and to make the fabric heavy or boardy. 

In regard to the running of the machine, too tight a stitch will 
tuck and load up, whereas too loose a stitch will drop off the 
needles or pull twits apart. 

The commonest and easiest way of counting the stitch is to 
count the number of courses with a stitch glass. The counting 
should be done off the machine to eliminate as much as possi- 
ble the disturbance due to the pull of the take-up, and when a 
close count is desired, it should always be counted in the same 
location around the cloth and away from the dog streaks. Count- 
ing by courses is a good way when the length of the fabric is 
important, as is the case generally with pattern fabric. It also 
eliminates differences due to such yarn characteristics as twist 
and harshness. But it is not reliable when the weight of the 
fabric is important. 

The most direct method to adjust the stitch is by the number 
of stitches per foot of yarn. Get the stitches per foot by marking 
on the yarn two oil spots a foot apart, running them into the 
machine and counting the number of cylinder needles between 
the spots, remembering that a space also is to be counted at 
one end just as in counting a screw thread. Frequently, it is 
possible to find on the stop motion convenient measuring dis- 
tances which are more than a foot in length and, consequently 
afford a more accurate result. For scientific purposes one whole 
turn of the cylinder is taken in order to eliminate the effect of 



Stitch Adjustment 169 

untrueness in the cyhnder and dial, but for commercial purposes 
one foot is generally a sufficient length. The stitches per foot 
of yarn are desirable for solution of the weight of the fabric per 
unit of area, square yard or square foot, for solution of the 
pounds production, and many other useful details. 

To start the machine the first care should be to have the stitch 
sufficiently loose so that the machine will start well. After that 
it may be adjusted according to the requirements, whatever 
they may be, such as weight per yard, weight per dozen, ap- 
pearance, or feel. These adjustments are generally made to a 
known number of courses or stitches per foot, or by trial, but 
the rules given elsewhere provide a much more comprehensive 
method. 

There are three places in which the stitch may be adjusted. 
They are : 

1. Cylinder stitch cam. 

2. Dial stitch cam. i 

3. Dial. 

The extent and frequency with which any one should be 
used depend on various considerations among which the follow- 
ing are important: 

The dial cannot go lower than the position which surely lets 
the fabric (bunches included) pass between it and the cylinder. 
The height to which it may go is greater than the stitch will 
require. 

The cylinder stitch must be long enough to enable the loop 
to clear the needles without tucking or breaking, and should not 
be so long as to pull the yarn apart at twits. The range of ad- 
justment provided in the machine is greater than that gener- 
ally allowed by the yarn. 

The dial stitch must be long enough to clear itself surely, 
but is limited by the length of yarn between the dial needles 
and cylinder needles. In fact the dial cam stitch adjustment is 
the most limited one of the three; moreover, it can be no longer 
than is allowed by the cylinder stitch. So as a rule, the dial 
stitch is set to clear as surely as possible and close itself as much 
as possible without unduly straining the yarn. After that the 
changes are generally made on the cylinder or dial or both, ex- 
cept that to shorten much on the cylinder requires reduction 
in the dial stitch. To lengthen on the cylinder or to change the 



170 The Science of Knitting 

position of the dial up or down does not necessitate a change in 
the dial cam. Moreover, the cylinder cam does not need to be 
adjusted for change in the elevation of the dial. 

Summary 

The cylinder stitch cam must be set to draw enough yarn for 
both the cylinder and dial stitch. 

The dial stitch cam must be set to draw enough to clear the 
old stitch surely, but not enough to break the new loop. 

The dial must be far enough away from the cylinder to let 
the fabric pass through, but may be adjusted farther without 
necessitating change in either the cylinder or dial cams, until the 
yarn begins to break or unhook from the cylinder needles, but 
this is not likely to occur until the fabric is too loose to be useful. 

The cylinder stitch is adjusted by means of what is called 
the index eccentric in the cam casing below the place where the 
cylinder needles draw the yarn down to form the loop. When 
the screw slot is horizontal and in its highest position, the cam 
is at its lowest position. Half a turn in either direction gives 
the entire range of adjustment. The change of adjustment is 
greatest when the slot is vertical and reduces to zero when the 
slot becomes horizontal. 

The dial stitch is adjusted by means of an eccentric like the 
one in the cam casing on top of the dial cap right after the feed, 
or by a headless screw in the edge of the dial cap in the same 
location. Turn the screw clockwise to lengthen the dial stitch. 

The dial adjustment is effected by means of the nut at the 
top of the dial stud. 

The machines with dogs have the nut threaded on the stud 
so a right-hand turn of the nut elevates the dial, and a left- 
hand turn depresses it. The stud binding screw must be loosened 
before each adjustment and tightened after it. When lowering 
the dial, push the stud down into position after unscrewing the 
nut, as it will not always drop with its own weight. 

The dogless machines have capstan nuts threaded on a washer 
instead of on the stud, so they are turned to the right to depress 
and to the left to elevate. Use a stiff rod that fits the holes 
well in order not to bruise them by the slipping out of a scant 
or flexible wire. Stud binding screws are not used with the 
dogless attachment, but it is generally necessary to push the 
stud down after the nut is turned to depress. 



Rib Knitting 171 

ADJUSTING THE YARN CARRIER 
The adjustment of the carrier involves four considerations: 

1. The heel of the carrier must come as near as possible to the 
closing cylinder latches without touching them. 

2. The bottom of the carrier must come as near as possible 
to the dial needles without touching them. 

3. The inside of the carrier must come as near as possible to 
the hooks of the cylinder needles without touching them, unless 
knots catch between the carrier and the cheek of the needle, in 
which case the carrier may be moved out a little, provided the 
hooks surely catch the yarn. 

4. The toe of the carrier should be adjusted outward to the 
position in which it does the least damage to the latches, a posi- 
tion variously estimated from i to j inch away from the needles 
depending on the shape and size of the carrier. 

When the carrier is so adjusted, the hooks of the cylinder 
needles should not be uncovered, cylinder latches should not 
close inside of the carrier or catch in the yarn hole, and dial 
latches should not close under the carrier or before the yarn is 
under the latch. If these troubles occur, then the shape of the 
carrier or the loca.tion of the hole should be changed to overcome 
them. 

Judgment should be used in the second adjustment, especially 
with machines having dial wing cams, since the height of the 
dial needles changes according to whether the latches are open 
or shut, whether the needles are in or out, whether the cloth is 
on or off, and whether the stitch is loose or tight either owing to 
adjustment or to a load-up. The carrier should be adjusted to 
clear the needles under all these conditions. 

RIB KNITTING 
Trouble, Cause and Remedy; especially for Ribbers 

It is assumed that the machines are not in bad order either 
from excessive use or misuse, and that they are equipped with 
stop motions. If the machines are in bad order, trouble may 
arise from so many sources that it is cheaper to have them re- 
paired than to search in books for remedies. If stop motions are 
not used, the yam and winding should be first class. These sub- 
jects are not treated here, since they have been considered in 
other books. 



172 



The Science of Knitting 
Rib Knitting 



Trouble 



Stitch dropped from 
one dial needle, ^ 
but yarn not cut 



Stitch dropped from 
one cylinder nee- , 
die, but yarn nof^ 
cut- 



Dial stitch dropped 
and yarn cut. 



Cause 



Dial latch closing under I 



yarn earner. 



Dial latch closing near 
heel of yarn carrier. 



Cylinder needles rising 
too soon after drawing 
stitch and so releasing 
it before the dial nee-" 
dies withdraw to keep 
the tension on it. 



Yarn not caught by cyl- 
inder needles. 

Yarn twisting out of cyl- 
inder needle hook. 

Dial needle in too far' 
when yarn is drawing, 
thus cutting it on sharp ^ 
edges of saw cut in 
needle. 

Lint or a mote clogged in s 
saw cut so that latch ( 
cuts itself out of stitch. ) 

Latch binding owing to 
needle being bent or 
otherwise damaged. 

Latch closing on one side ) 
of hook so letting other i 
side cut stitch. ) 

Dial needle drawing in' 
too far, thus cutting I 
stitch on edge of sinker [ 
or breaking it. 

Stitch so tight that it 
fails to clear and breaks i 
when needle comes out. i 



Remedy 



Lower carrier. 

Move carrier back as far 
as possible without in- 
terfering with cylinder 
latches as they close. 

Carry the yarn lower so 
that it prevents the 
closing of the latch. 

Adjust the cap forward 
so that the dial nee- 
dles will not come out 
so far, unless this in- 
terferes with drawing 
the stitch over the 
rivet. 

Grind cylinder landing 
cam so it raises the 
cylinder needles no 
faster than the dial 
needles withdraw. 

Adjust dial cap forward 
unless restricted by 
other requirements. 

Adjust guard so it will 
catch. 

Put tension on yarn. 
Dampen yarn. 

Adjust cap back so that 
yarn is drawn over 
rivet. 



Clean out obstruction. 



Replace needle. 



Replace needle. 



Adjust dial-stitch cam 
outward. 



Loosen stitch. 
Use lighter 
coarser cut. 



yarn or 



Trouble, Cause, and Remedy 
Rib Knitting 



173 



Trouble 



Cause 



Cylinder stitch I 
dropped and yarn" 
cut. 



Vertical line of big 
stitches. 



Vertical line or lines 
of dial tucks. 



Needles loading up 
all around. 



Latch swinging to one 
side and catching on 
dial needle thus break- 
ing out of the stitch. 
May result from saw 
cut being out of line 
with the butt, the latch 
being loose, the latch 
being bent, the needle 
too loose in the slot. 

Latch closing on yarn J 
carrier. 

Yarn cutting between ) 
cylinder and dial nee- ( 
die. ^ 

Stitch so long that the ) 
needle breaks the yarn ? 
in drawing it. ' 

Edge of spoon landing on-N 
hook thus preventing ! 
latches closing com- f 
pletely. J 



Dial latches scored by 
yarn carrier (on ma- 
chines with tucking or y 
welting attachment). 



Slack take-up. Due to 
(1) Insufficient weight. <{ 



(2) Inoperationof take 
up stop motion, j 



(3) Take-up pulley, 

gear, or collar 
loose. 

(4) Take-up gummed. 

Cloth held between dial 
and cylinder. | 

Yarn too heavy. I 

Stitch too tight. ' 



Remedy 



Replace needle. 



Adjust yarn carrier for- 
ward. 

Adjust dial so that the 
two sets of needles will 
not interfere. 

Use yarn suitable to the 
stitch, or readjust lat- 
ter. 

) 

Replace needle. 



Raise yarn carrier so 
that dial needle with 
closed latch will pass 
beneath under all con- 
ditions, and replace 
damaged needles. 

Add front weight or ad- 
just take-up weight- 
hanger-rod outward. 
Take off back weight 
or adjust weights 
hanger-rod inward. 

Adjust stop-off chain- 
connecting take-up 
and knock-oflf handle 
so that power will 
knock off before take- 
up rests on leg base. 

Tighten loose part. 
Clean and oil take-up. 

Elevate dial. 

Use lighter yarn or 

coarser cut. 
Loosen stitch. 



174 



The Science of Knitting 
Rib Knitting 



Trouble 



Fabric pulling off 
needles. 



One or more cyl- /- 
inder s t i t c h e a I 
dropped in line i 
with dogs. L 

r 



Cut, or drop, with a 
seed, knot, slub,-^ 
or bunch in it. 



Press off without 
stop motion trip-., 
ping. 



Cause 



Dial needles scored all 
around by low carrier, 
and cutting stitcher 

Stitch far too tight. 



Take-up tension too se- 
vere. 



Dogs holding fabric back^ 
sothatcylinderstitches ! 
unhook from cylinder j 
needles. J 



The seed, knot, slub, or 
bunch. 



~l 



Yarn parting owing to a^ 
pull between the nee- 
dles and the sweep wire. 

(1 ) An eye clogged with 

lint owing to 
roughness, to be- 
ing too long, to 
being too small 

(2) knot catching on j 

sharp edge of eye. | 

(3) knot catching be-^ 

tween yarn car- ] 
rier and cheek of ) 
needle. J 

Lint holding feeler finger. \ 

Stop motions improp- 
erly threaded. 



Remedy 



Raise carrier and replace 
damaged needles. 

Loosen stitch. 

Take off front weights or 
adjust weight-hanger- 
rod inward. 

Add back weights or ad- 
just weight-hanger-rod 
outward. 

Increase take-up tension. 
Grind landing cam 
down if allowable. 

Keep these obstructions 
out as much as possi- 
ble, by adjustment of 
the stop motion and 
by keeping the ma- 
chine free from collec- 
tions of lint. 

See that the freest pos- 
sible passage is allowed 
for those that do go 
into the machine. 
Knots and bunches 
may catch between 
the yarn carrier and 
the cheek of the cylin- 
der needle, or the dial 
needle may be out of 
its mid-position be- 
tween the cylinder 
needles, so that the 
obstruction is held be- 
tween cylinder and 
dial needle. 



Modify eye. 

Use porcelain eye. 



Round edge. 
Use porcelain eye. 

Move carrier out, if yarn 

is not likely to drop. 
Drill yarn hole higher. 

Clean stop motion regu- 
larly. 

1 I ' ' 

J Use caution in threading. I 



Needles per Inch 



175 



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176 



The Science of Knitting 



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182 



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184 



The Science of Knitting 



Diameter of WUdman Ribbers from Back to Back of Cylinder Needles 



Nominal 


Actual diameter 


Nominal 


Proportion 
of nominal diameter 














diameter 




Gauge 




diameter 




Gauge 




18 


24-30-36 


48 


18 


24-30-36 


48 


2 


1.68 


1.69 


1.70 


2 


.839 


.846 


.851 


2i 


1.93 


1.94 


1.95 


2i 


.856 


.863 


.868 


2i 


2.18 


2.19 


2.20 


2^ 


.871 


.877 


.881 


2| 


2.43 


2.44 


2.45 


2f 


.883 


.888 


.892 


3 


2.68 


2.69 


2.70 


3 


.893 


.897 


.901 


3i 


2.93 


2.94 


2.95 


3J 


.901 


.905 


.908 


3i 


3.18 


3.19 


3.20 


3i 


.907 


.912 


.915 


31 


3.43 


3.44 


3.45 


3f 


.914 


.918 


.921 


4 


3.68 


3.69 


3.70 


4 


.919 


.923 


.926 


4i 


3.93 


3.94 


3.95 


4i 


.925 


.928 


.930 


4^ 


4.18 


4.19 


4.20 


4i 


.930 


.932 


.934 


41 


4.43 


4.44 


4.45 


41 


.933 


.935 


.937 


5 


4.68 


4.69 


4.70 


5 


.936 


.939 


.941 


5i 


4.93 


4.94 


4.95 


5^ 


.940 


.941 


.943 


51 


5.18 


5.19 


5.20 


5^ 


.942 


.944 


.946 


51 


5.43 


5.44 


5.45 


51 


.945 


.947 


.948 


6 


5.68 


5.69 


5.70 


6 


.947 


.949 


.950 


6i 


5.93 


5.94 


5.95 


6i 


.950 


.951 


.952 


61 


6.18 


6.19 


6.20 


6^ 


.951 


.953 


.954 


61 


6.43 


6.44 


6.45 


61 


.952 


.954 


.956 



Circumference of Wildman Ribbers at Back of Needles 







Gauge 








Gauge 




Nominal 
diameter 








Nominal 
diameter 






















18 


24-30-36 


48 




18 


24-30-36 


48 


2 


5.273 


5.317 


5.349 


41 


13.127 


13.171 


13.202 


2i 


6.059 


6.103 


6.134 


4f 


13.913 


13.957 


13.988 


2i 


6.844 


6.888 


6.920 


5 


14.698 


14.742 


14.773 


2f 


7.630 


7.674 


7.706 


5i 


15.482 


15.528 


15.559 


3 


8.415 


8.460 


8.491 


5^ 


16.272 


16.313 


16.344 


3i 


9.200 


9.244 


9.276 


hi 


17.054 


17.100 


17.130 


3J 


9.986 


10.030 


10.062 


6 


17.841 


17.883 


17.915 


31 


10.771 


10.815 


10.846 


6i 


18.627 


18.670 


18.702 


4 


11.557 


11.600 


11.631 


61 


19.410 


19.455 


19.487 


4i 


12.341 


12.386 


12.417 


6f 


20.197 


20.240 


20.272 



Performance of a Latch-needle Rib Body Machine 185 



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186 



The Science of Knitting 



Table of Mazimuin and Minimum Stitches 







Least 








Least 








number 


Greatest 






number 


Greatest 


Yarn 
No. 




of stitches 


number 


Yarn 
No. 




of stitches 


number 


V^. 


per foot 


of stitches 


VNo. 


per foot 


of stitches 




of yarn 


per foot 




of yarn 


per foot 






for stable 


of yarn 






for stable 


of yarn 






fabric 








fabric 




5 


2.2361 


15.25 


29.74 


23 


4.7958 


32.70 


63.79 


6 


2.4495 


16.70 


32.59 


24 


4.8990 


33.39 


65.16 


7 


2.6458 


18.04 


35.19 


25 


5.0000 


34.09 


66.50 


8 


2.8284 


19.28 


37.62 


26 


5.0990 


34.76 


67.82 


9 


3.0000 


20.45 


39.90 


27 


5.1962 


35.46 


69.12 


10 


3.1623 


21.56 


42.06 


28 


5.2915 


36.09 


70.38 


11 


3.3166 


22.61 


44.11 


29 


5.3852 


36.72 


71.62 


12 


3.4641 


23.62 


46.07 


30 


5.4772 


37.34 


72.86 


13 


3.6056 


24.58 


47.96 


31 


5.5678 


37.96 


74.06 


14 


3.7417 


25.51 


49.77 


32 


5.6569 


38.57 


75.24 


15 


3.8730 


26.40 


51.51 


33 


5.7446 


39.16 


76.41 


16 


4.0000 


27.27 


53.20 


34 


5.8310 


39.75 


77.56 


17 


4.1231 


28.11 


54.84 


35 


5.9161 


40.34 


78.69 


18 


4.2426 


28.92 


56.43 


36 


6.0000 


40.90 


79.80 


19 


4.3589 


29.72 


57.97 


37 


6.0828 


41.47 


80.90 


20 


4.4721 


30.49 


59.48 


38 


6.1644 


41.96 


81.99 


21 


4.5826 


31.24 


60.95 


39 


6.2450 


42.58 


83.06 


22 


4.6904 


31.98 


62.39 


40 


6.3246 


43.12 


84.12 



One of the important things to learn about a country is its 
boundaries. How far can one go in that country before reaching 
its border? So, in knitting one of the important questions is 
what are the hmits? How far can one go, for instance, with the 
stitches per foot of yarn in either direction? This table answers 
that question for latch-needle rib machines, as it stands, and for 
flat-work machines if the stitches are for six inches of yarn. It 
is of course understood that these limits, and especially the loose- 
stitch limits, depend upon many conditions, such as opinion of 
what constitutes good fabric, strength of yarn, speed of machine, 
etc. But in "any case this table constitutes a suggestion from 
which the reader may make his own table to suit his particular 
requirements. 

The table is derived as follows: 

Least number of stitches = 6.83 VNo. 
Greatest number of stitches = 13.3 VNo. 



Yarn Counts 187 



YARN COUNTS 

An equal weight of each of several yarns may be taken and 
each one may be numbered according to the length of that 
weight, as in the cotton count; or an equal length may be taken 
and each yarn may be numbered according to the weight of that 
length, as in the grain counts. 

The first, or cotton count, method is called " the length-of-a- 
constant-weight system" and the other, or grain, method is 
called "the weight-of-a-constant-length system." For brevity 
the first is called "the constant-weight system" and the second 
"the constant-length system." Both are very simple but their 
application is made confusing by the use of many uncommon 
units of measure, such as hanks, jack draws, etc., the explanation 
of which is of historical interest principally. 

Simple Units are Satisfactory. — All that it is necessary to 
know for practical purposes are the common equivalents of these 
units. 

Cotton Count. — Suppose the pound is taken for the unit in 
the constant-weight system and one pound of a certain size yarn 
is found to be 840 yards long. Then one pound of a yarn half 
as heavy would be twice 840 or 1680 yards long. These numbers 
840 and 1680 might be taken as the yarn counts, but they are 
too big for convenient use. So a larger unit of length than the 
yard, namely, 840 yards, is taken as the cotton-count unit of 
length. Consequently the cotton count of any yarn is the number 
of yards in a pound divided by 840, called a hank; so the first yarn 
was No. 1 and the yarn half as heavy was No. 2. Evidently in 
this system the number increases as the yarn becomes finer. 

Grain Count. — Now suppose that 50 yards is taken as the 
unit of length in the constant-length system and grains as the unit 
of weight. Then a yarn of which 50 yards weigh one grain is 
one-grain yarn. A yarn twice as heavy weighs two grains and 
is called two-grain yarn. Therefore, in this system — the con- 
stant-length system — the number increases as the weight of the 
yarn increases. 

Transforming between Systems. — Take a round piece of 
elastic. It has a number in each system. Stretch the elastic to 
twice its length. Its number has doubled in one system and 
halved in the other system. That is, for change in the yarn the 
number multiplies as much in one system as it divides in the 



188 



The Science of Knitting 



other. Suppose the elastic is No. 1 cotton; that is, 52 grain, 
Cohoes. One multiphed by fifty-two equals fifty-two. After 
it is stretched twice its length it is No. 2 cotton and 26 grain, 
Cohoes. Two multiplied by twenty-six equals fifty-two, the 
same as before. And no matter how much the elastic is stretched, 
the product of its number in the two counts is fifty-two. Take 
the number of any yarn in any count of the constant-weight 
system and its number in any count of the constant-length sys- 
tem; multiply these two numbers together and the product will 
be a constant, which divided by the number of any yarn in one 
count will give its number in the other count. For instance, 13 
cotton is 4 grain, Cohoes, 13 X 4 = 52. Then No. 10 cotton is 
5.2 grain, Cohoes because 52 4- 10 = 5.2, etc. 

Transfonning within Systems. — Transformation between 
counts in either system is effected by simple proportion. For 
instance, the cotton count and the worsted count are both of 
the constant-weight system and cotton number X I = worsted 
number. Similarly, the Amsterdam count and the Cohoes count 
are both in the constant-length system, and Amsterdam num- 
ber X 2 = Cohoes number. On these two simple principles, 
division of a constant or multiplication of a ratio, depend all 
the yarn transformations. 

The table on page 194 gives the constants for practical use in 
transformation between systems and convenient proportions for 
transformation within either system. 

Yarn Count Definitions 





840 




cotton count 




560 




worsted count 


The yards in a pound 


1600 


is the 


run 


divided by 


300 




cut or lea 




496 




metric, strict 




992 




metric, modified 




61 1 




'Cohoes standard 




m 




Amsterdam standard 


The weight in grains 


20 




American standard 


of the following 


50 


■ is the ■ 


New Hampshire standard 


number of yards 


633.9* 




neat-silk denier standard 




36.57 




neat-silk dram standard 



* Some authorities differ from this number of yards. 



Counts Used for Different Kinds of Yarns 189 

Technically, the weight in grains of < g [ jack draws is the 

1 AmSrSdard [ "ut { ^ \ are used as the equivalent 
lengths in yards. 

COUNTS USED FOR DIFFERENT KINDS OF YARNS 

Confusion in Yam Numbering. — On page 190 is a list of the 
most used counts and the kinds of yarn for which they are used, 
but no such list is entirely dependable. For instance, 20 ramie 
may be metric, or metric modified, and if it is not known which, 
confusion is likely to result unless the individual can determine 
for himself. This is true of many other yarns. Consequently, 
any one who has to use different yarns should early form the 
habit of determining the number for himself instead of depend- 
ing on guesses. See yarn diameter, from which the cotton count 
can be determined. Then by simple transformations into the 
counts supposed to be used, the actual one will be ascertained 
by its substantial agreement with one of the transformed 
numbers. 

Difference, in Ply-yarn Numbering. — Another source of con- 
fusion is the lack of agreement in ply-yarn numbers. Thirty 
two-ply cotton is really 15 cotton made of two thirty yarns 
twisted together. Thirty two-ply spun silk is really 30 yarn 
composed of two threads of 60 twisted together. Therefore, 
for cotton, divide the nominal number by the ply to get the real 
number; but for silk, neglect the ply except for general informa- 
tion. If the distinction cannot be remembered, but some of the 
yarn is available, dependence should be put on actual measure- 
ment. 

Confusion between Multiple-ply and Multiple-thread Yam. — 
Still another source of confusion is the lack of a distinguishing 
indication whether yarn is two-ply or two-thread. 

Ply yarn is single yarn composed of finer yams twisted to- 
gether. Two-thread is an expression meaning that two single 
yarns are used as one. A two-thread fabric is generally made by 
running two separate threads into each feed used in making the 
fabric. The numerical ways of writing two-ply or two-thread 
30 are 2/30, 2-30; 30/2, 30-2. In some localities one form 
means two-thread and the other two-ply, whereas in other 
localities the meaning is just the reverse. Consequently, when 



^^^ The Science of Knitting 

such an expression gets out of its locahty, it is misunderstood. 
Moreover, it is so easy to forget which expression means two-ply 
that there seems but httle chance of agreement on a definite 
meamng for either form, even if a concerted effort should be 
made. Therefore, the only safe way apparent is to spell out 
two-ply or two-thread. 

American Count. — Used in the northeastern part of the United 
States and Eastern Canada for numbering yarn made in the 
knitting mill. 

Amsterdam Count. — This is merely a modification of the 
Cohoes count, used to obtain a more accurate weight. It is used 
principally through New York State for yarn made in the knit- 
ting mill. 

Cohoes Count. — Used through the eastern part of New York 
State for yarn made in the mill. 

Cotton Count. — Used almost universally for commercial cotton 
yarn, mcluding mercerized cotton, also used for spun silk. 

Cut or Lea. — Used in Great Britain for linen, ramie and fine 
jute, for which use it is called lea. Used for woolen yarn in 
Eastern Pennsylvania, where it is called cut. 

Metric Standard. — Sometimes used for some yarns where 
the metric standard is obligatory. Ramie is numbered in this 
standard. 

Metric Modified. — Used for linen and some cotton on the 
European Continent. 

New Hampshire. — Used to some extent through the New 
England States. 

Run. — Used for woolen yarns, other than worsted, in Great 
Britam and the United States. 

Silk Denier. — Used extensively for raw silk, also used for 
throw^n silk on the European Continent. 

Silk Dram. — Used for thrown silk. 

Worsted Count. — Used extensively in English-speaking coun- 
tries for worsted. 

EXPLANATION OF CONVENIENT EQUATIONS FOR 

DETERMINING THE NUMBER OF YARN IN THE 

CONSTANT-WEIGHT COUNTS 

It is generally undesirable to reel an entire hank of yarn 

when It IS necessary to determine the count, so it is convenient to 

have shorter lengths which will serve the purpose without 



Convenient Equations for Determining the Number of Yarn 191 

necessitating reduction from the hank. The tabulation of con- 
venient equations shows in the first row the definition equations, 
except that those of the metric system are converted into yards 
and pounds. 

The second row is the same, with each term of the fraction di- 
vided by ten. It is evident from the fu'st equation of the second 
row that if 84 yards of yarn be reeled and weighed, the num- 
ber will be one-tenth divided by that weight. This length is 
long enough to give a reliable weighing, yet not long enough to 
be wasteful of either yarn or time. After a httle use, the decimal 



Convenient Equations for Determining the Number of Yam in the Constant- 
_ weight Counts 

General Equation. No. = • 

Weight of a constant length 



Cotton 



No. 
No. 


1 


Wt. 840 yds. 
.1 


Wt. 84 yds. 


No. 
No. 


7000 


\Nt. 840 yds. 
1000 

Wt. 120 yds. 


No. 


8^ X yds. weighed 



Wt. 



Worsted 



Wt. 560 yds. 
.1 

Wt. 56 yds. 



7000 



Wt. 560 yds. 
1000 



80 yds. 



12.5 X Yds, weighed 
Wt. 



Run 



Wt. 1600 yds. 
.1 

Wt. 160 yds. 



7000 



Wt. 1600 yds. 
1000 

Wt. 228.6 



4.375 X Yds. weighed 



Wt. 



Weight 

in 
pounds 



Weight 

in 
grains 



Cut 



No. = 



No. = 



Wt. 300 yds. 
^1 

Wt. 30 yds. 



No. = 



7000 



No. = 



Wt. 300 yds. 
1000 

Wt. 42.86 yds. 



No. = 



23§X Yds, weighed 
Wt. 



Metric, modified 



Wt. 496 yds. 
.1 

Wt. 49.6 yds. 



7000 



Wt. 496 yds. 
1000 

Wt. 70.86 yds. 



14.11 X Yds, weighed 
" Wt^ 



Metric, strict 



Wt. of 992 yds. 
■ 1 

Wt. of 99.2 yds. 



7000 



Wt. 992 yds. 

1000 
Wt. 141.7 yds. 



7.056 X Yds, weighed 
Wt. 



Weight 

in 
pounds 



Weight 

in 
grains 



192 The Science of Knitting 

point may be forgotten, since it will come in the right place 
from habit. All of the other equations in the second row are 
similar to the one just explained. 

It is frequently customary to weigh in grains instead of pounds, 
so the third row gives the definition equations for use when the 
grain weight per hank is used. But since the hank is too long 
for ordinary weighing, the fourth row gives the grain weight 
equations with both terms divided by seven, which makes the 
numerator 1000, and provides a convenient length for reeling, 
the weight of which, divided into 1000, gives the number. 

The fifth row gives equations for use when it is not convenient 
or desirable to reel a fixed length. For the cotton count, weigh 
whatever length is convenient or available and divide that 
weight into the length in yards multiplied by 8i Proceed 
similarly for the other equations. 

SINGLE EQUIVALENT OF TWO OR MORE YARNS 

Let iVi and N2 be the numbers of two yarns (in the constant- 
weight system, i.e., cotton, worsted, run, cut, metric) whose 
single equivalent is desired, say Ng. 

By definition Ni = — :-; , 

weight of a constant length of Ni 

N2 = - . - 

weight of a constant length of N2' 

Therefore, weight of a constant length oi Ni = —-. 

Ni 

weight of a constant length oi N2 = ~ - 

N2 

Adding, total weight of a constant length of Ni and nI 

' ^i.4-l_- N,-\-N2 
iVi A^2 N1N2 ' 
Inverting, 

1 ^ NiN2 1 

total weight of a constant length of Ni and A^2 Ni + N2 

= Ns by definition. 

In other words, the produgt of two yarn numbers divided by 
their sum is the number of the single equivalent. 

From which it follows that the product of one yarn and the 
equivalent divided by their difference is the other yarn. 



Yarn Rules for Different Yarn Counts 193 

Examples. — What is the single equivalent of No. 10 and 

No. 20? 

10X20 200 . ._ 

-3or- = -30 = ^•^^- 

What yarn is required with an 18 to make 12? 
18 X 12 216 



18-12 6 



= 36. 



When three or more yarns are to be reduced, combine two 
at a time until the single yarn is obtained. 

When the yarns are in the constant-length system, their 
numbers are simply added to obtain the number of the single 
equivalent. The ordinary counts in this system are Cohoes, 
Amsterdam, American, New Hampshire, neat silk denier, neat 
silk dram. 

Explanation of Yarn-transformation Table 

Page 194 

The given count is at the left of the table. The required 
count is at the top. 

Divide the whole number or multiply the fraction at the in- 
tersection of the two counts by the number to be transformed 
to get the number sought. 

Examples. — What is No. 10 cotton in dram silk count? 
Find the name of the given count, cotton, on the left. Run along 
to the column headed silk, dram. The expression found there is 
305. Since it is a whole number, divide it by the given number. 
305 -7- 10 = 30.5, the dram silk number of No. 10 cotton. 

What is 10-grain New Hampshire in the Cohoes count? Find 

the name of the given count. New Hampshire, on the left. Run 

along to the column headed Cohoes. The expression there is 

25 . . . 

^^. Since it is a fraction, multiply it by the given number 10. 

25 

2^7: X 10 = 1.25, the Cohoes number of 10-grain New Hampshire. 

Yarn Rules for Different Yarn Counts 

Page 195 

This table gives the yarn-for-cut rules transposed into the yarn 

counts used in America. Attention is called to the fact that the 

transposition is made according to the yarn numbers and not 

according to the diameters, although the last method is right. 



194 



The Science of Knitting 



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Yam Rules for Different Yarn Counts 



195 



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196 The Science of Knitting 

Yarn Diameter and Coils, from Dia. = ~ 



Vno. 



No. 


Dia. 


Coils per 1 in. 


Coils per 5 in. 


2 


.033670 


29.700 


14.850 


3 


.027493 


36.370 


18.185 


4 


.023810 


41.995 


21.000 


5 


.021295 


46.955 


23.480 


6 


.019441 


51.490 


25.720 


7 


.017998 


55.557 


27.780 


8 


.016835 


59.400 


29.700 


9 


.015873 


63.000 


31.500 


10 


.015057 


66.415 


33.207 


11 


.014357 


69.650 


34.825 


12 


.013746 


72.750 


36.375 


13 


.013207 


75.715 


37.855 


14 


.012725 


78.580 


39.290 


15 


.012294 


81.340 


40.667 


16 


.011904 


84.000 


42.000 


17 


.011567 


86.450 


43.225 


18 


.011223 


89.100 


44.550 


19 


.010925 


91.530 


45.765 


20 


.010646 


93.930 . 


46.965 


21 


.010391 


96.230 


48.115 


22 


.010152 


98.510 


49.250 


23 


.009929 


100.720 


50.357 


24 


.009720 


102.880 


51.440 


25 


.009523 


105.010 


52.503 


26 


.009366 


106.760 


53.380 


27 


.009164 


109.130 


54.560 


28 


.008999 


111.110 


55.560 


29 


.008843 


113.080 


56.540 


30 


.008694 


115.030 


57.510 


31 


.008553 


116.920 


58.460 


32 


.008418 


118.790 


59.395 


33 


.008290 


120.630 


60.310 


34 


.008167 


122.450 


61.223 


35 


.008049 


124.240 


62.120 


36 


.007937 


125.980 


62.995 


37 


.007829 


127.730 


63.865 


38 


.007725 


129.500 


64.750 


39 


.007625 


131.150 


65.570 


40 


.007529 


132.820 


66.410 



But there is yet so little information about yarn diameters that 
no transposition could be made if the yarn numbers were not 
used. These formulas will be found quite reliable — much more 
so than guesses — but their principal value is in the simplicity 
of their form rather than in the constants given, since knit- 
ting is in such an unadvanced condition that there is not suffi- 
cient data on which to base absolutely reliable constants. But 



Yarn Rules for Different Yarn Counts 197 

such are not necessary, since, as a rule, each knitter needs con- 
stants of his own to meet his own conditions of yarn and stitch, 
depending on the trade to which he caters. These simple equa- 
tions give him the models from which to make his own rules. 
Multiplication and division are the only knowledge needed for 
their use, except perhaps, that the square of a number is that 
number multiplied by itself. But a table of squares is given, so 
that the squares may be read off without the inconvenience of 
computation. Let the knitter take the rule that applies to his 
machine and yarn count and try it. Suppose he uses latch-needle 
rib machinery and numbers his yarn in runs. If he wants to 
make average weight goods, his rule from the table is Runs = 

Cut^ 

• Suppose he is using 6 cut. The square of six is 36, 

obtained either mentally or from the table of squares. Then the 
yarn for 6 cut is 36 -r- 11.4 or 3.2, say 3 run yarn, for short. 
If this is too heavy, try cut squared, divided by 10. If tliat fits 
the case, it is easily remembered and can be worked mentally. 
This rule will hold for similar conditions on all other cuts. 
Perhaps the knitter uses a machine altogether different from any 
mentioned, in the rules. That makes no difference. The rule 
is universal. Only the constant needs to be changed. Square 
the needles per inch or the gauge, divide by the yarn used on that 
gauge and the quotient is the constant for all other gauges of 
that kind of machine. If the yarn count is in the constant length 
system, such as grains, the constant has to be divided by the square 
of the cut or gauge as the case may be, as is shown by the table. 

Two precautions are advisable. 

The first is to make sure that the yarn used to determine the 
constant is the right size for that purpose. If it is very heavy 
for the cut, then the equation will call for very heavy yarn in 
every case. 

The other precaution is to avoid the use on a coarse cut of a 
constant determined on fine or even average cuts. The reason 
for this is that knitting machinery is seldom symmetrical!}'" 
designed on the extreme cuts and especially on the extremely 
coarse cuts. Consequently, if a certain diameter of yarn is per- 
fectly satisfactory for a fine cut, a proportionately heavier one 
might overload a very heavy cut. Of course, if the constant has 
been determined on a cut comparatively near the one to be used, 
even if they are both coarse, the rule is reliable. 



198 



The Science of Knitting 



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Figure Designing with Pattern Wheels 199 

FIGURE DESIGNING WITH PATTERN WHEELS 

Knit fabric is most extensively produced in the form of a tube 
by circular motion, and circular motion is generally described in 
the terms of the motion of the hands of a clock. 

ICnitting-machine Motion. — The motion of the machine in 
Illustration 1 is contrary to that of the hands of a clock and so 
the machine is called counter-clockwise or anti-clockwise. If the 
motion were in the opposite direction, it would be called clock- 
wise, since it would then be just like that of a clock, which is 
shown by the one illustrated under the machine for the purpose 
of comparison. It is evident that the clock is on its back and 
that the clock case is taken as the stationary portion just as the 
frame of the machine is taken as the stationary portion with 
respect to the needles. In this case, the frame of the machine is 
called the stator, which means stationary portion and the cylinder 
and dial are called the rotor, which means rotating portion. 
Evidently the machine is viewed from above, just as is the clock. 
However, if this machine were turned upside down and operated 
V. ith its legs towards the ceiling, it would make exactly the same 
cloth. This shows that although it is permissible to classify 
knitting machinery according to its motion as viewed from above, 
still that classification will not properly describe its motion with 
respect to the fabric which it produces; for the direction of motion 
is reversed by inversion of the machine, but the fabric is not 
changed. Again, if instead of the needles moving anti-clockwise 
and the cams keeping stationary, the needles were kept stationary 
and the cams were moved clockwise, still the cloth would be the 
same, although the motion of the machine would be different by 
the above mentioned classification. In order to overcome all 
these difficulties and still adopt conventions which may be readily 
learned and which possibly will not need to be changed, it seems 
best to make the following agreements: 

Top of Fabric. — (1) That the top of the fabric is to be that 
portion which is nearest the needles, or, in other words, the 
portion which left the needles last. This is generally accepted 
of plain fabric, although it is contrary to American practice in 
regard to fabric with figure designs. But it is almost impossible 
to get a universal standard without contravention of some local 
standards and there are a number of good reasons other than that 
already mentioned for considering the top of the design to be the 









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Illustration 1. 

This machine is anti-clockwise since its motion is opposite to that of the 

hands of a clock. 
Clockwise motion is the same as that of the hands of a clock. 
(200) 



Figure Designing with Pattern Wheels 201 

portion which left the needles last. For instance, fabric of this 
kind can generally be raveled only from the end which left the 
needles last, consequently, it is natural to keep this end up to 
examine a given sample. Also the figure of the design may well 
be regarded as being built up from below like most structures in 
which the first courses are at the bottom. 

Face of Fabric. — (2) The face of the fabric is that side towards 
which the new loop is drawn through the old loop. This con- 
vention is generally accepted, so it is repeated here as a reminder 
instead of an introduction. 

Fabric Considered to Move. — (3) The fabric is to be con- 
sidered the moving portion of the machine, that is, the rotor. 
With this agreement, it matters not whether the guide or the 
fabric really moves. If the fabric revolves, there can be no con- 
fusion. If the guide moves, the fabric is considered to move 
in the opposite direction, since it is only their relative motion 
which counts in the fabric. This will be made clear by refer- 
ence to Illustration 1, in which the machine is considered anti- 
clockwise, because the fabric moves in that direction. If, now, 
the fabric were kept stationary and the cam ring were moved 
in the opposite direction, the structure of the fabric would not 
be changed, therefore, this machine would still be classed as 
anti-clockwise. The agreement on this convention reduces the 
complexity of the question one-half, since it cuts in two the 
number of machines to be considered. 

Designation of Motion. — (4) Smce, when the tube of fabric 
is cut open, the direction of circular motion can no longer be 
determined, the words " right " and " left " are to be used with 
reference to the fabric — viewed face out, top up — instead of 
'' clockwise " and " anti-clockwise " to indicate the motion of 
knitting. 

The fabric from the machine in Illustration 1 is top up and 
face out. Therefore, the knitting motion considered with respect 
to the face of the cloth is right-hand. Now, consider the French 
circular machine shown diagrammatically in Illustration 2. The 
fabric revolves clockwise, runs downward, and faces inward. It 
is evidently right side up, but wrong side out. Consequently, 
from the inside, the motion of knitting is right-hand with respect 
to the fabric. Notice that one change of position was necessary 
to view the fabric correctly and that one change of the appar- 
ent direction of motion was necessary to obtain the correct 



202 



The Science of Knitting 



direction. Again, consider the American loop-wheel machine in 
Illustration 3, in which the fabric revolves anti-clockwise, runs 
upward and faces inward. Evidently, it is wrong side up and 
wrong side out, consequently two changes of position are neces- 
sary to give the correct view position with respect to the face 
of the fabric. But the first change of position reverses the ap- 
parent motion, and the second brings it back again where it was 
at first. From this comes the general rule: 

Rule for Motion. — To get the correct motion of knitting reverse 
the apparent motion of the fabric as many times as it is necessary 
to change position in order to view the face right side up. The knit- 
ter should be prepared to meet sixteen types of machine. The 
agreement that the fabric shall be considered the moving portion 
reduces the number to eight. Table 1 illustrates the eight repre- 
sentative types, describes the sixteen types, and shows the direc- 
tion of knitting motion for each one. 

The diagrams are drawn with the portion of the fabric on the 
needles larger in diameter than the first knit portion, and the 
latter is shown with what appears like the cutting tooth of a bit 
or auger. The reason for showing the tooth is that the circular 
machine really knits a ribbon of fabric and loops the edges of the 
ribbon together. This may be understood from Illustration 4 
which represents an anti-clockwise multiple-feed machine in 
which the fabric runs downward and in which one feed is sup- 
plied with black yarn, while the others are supplied with white 
yarn. This machine knits a ribbon of fabric as many courses 
wide as it has feeds, which width is from black course to the 
next black course, and at each revolution loops the adjoining 
edges of that ribbon. Therefore, if the tube is cut around 
through one black course and then cut lengthwise along one wale 
to the next black course, the end of the tube will show the tooth 






Illustration 2. 
French machine. 



Illustration 3. 
American machine. 



Illustration 4. 

Ribbon structure of 

circular fabric. 



Figure Designing with Pattern Wheels 203 

illustrated. The same appearance may be obtained by raveling 
all the threads to a certain wale. The path of this ribbon is 
called a helix, and the first formed portion always points in the 
combined direction of motion in which the fabric is formed. 
In this case that dii'ection is to the right and downward. If 
this ribbon construction of the fabric and the direction of in- 
clination are remembered, figure designing with pattern wheels 
is readily understood. 

Pattern Wheels for Latch-needle Machine. — Evidently, these 
pattern wheels do not act on a particular needle, nor do they 
act directly, but act through a cam on an entire set of needles, 
or on a fixed division of a set, as when the set of needles is 
operated by two independent sets of cams for making vertical 
stripes. On the contrary, the pattern wheel for figure designs 
acts directly on each individual needle of its set or division of 
a set, and is, theoretically, capable of making any needle oper- 
ate in a contrary way from any other needle. For ihstance, 
at one revolution it might make a given needle tuck and the 
next needle knit, whereas at the next revolution it might make 
each one do just the reverse; that is, it is capable of selecting 
needles, and when used in latch-needle work is actually called 
the selector. See " Tuck-stitch figures." In spring-needle 
machines it is called the presser because it presses the beards of 
the needles where it clears the stitches and mispresses (fails to 
press) where it tucks. 

Spring-needle Pattern Wheel. — The ordinary spring-needle 
presser is a bronze wheel about 3 inches in diameter with a hub 
in the middle for its supporting stud and 'udth two kinds of nicks 
around its circumference, shallow ones called prints to keep the 
presser traveling with the needles, and deep nicks to make the 
pattern effects. 

Material for Pattern Wheels. — The material of the presser 
should be durable, should cut readily, and should not roughen 
the needles. Bronze meets the requirements quite satisfactorily, 
but iron, soft brass and even fiberoid are used. The latter may 
be cut or filed very readily; it is quite durable and is economical, 
since as generally constructed the hub or bushing is removable, 
so that the only cost for renewal of a presser is that for a new 
fiberoid disc. Also with this construction several discs may 
be clamped together and cut at one time when duplicates are 
required. 



204 



The Science of Knitting 













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Figure Designing with Pattern Wheels 



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206 The Science of Knitting 

Special Pattern Wheels. — The designs are generally origi- 
nated in the mill and the patterns worked out there, after which 
the pressers are ordered from the knitting machine shop accord- 
ing to the specified pattern. In mills which make considerable 
quantities of pattern work the cutting is done in the mill's re- 
pair shop. This has the advantage of facilitating the work and 
of keeping the design secret until after the goods are upon the 
market, which insures the mill one season's exclusive run on 
the design. However, the knitting machine makers probably 
seldom, if ever, betray such confidence, so frequently knit-goods 
manufacturers who are not familiar with pattern work — fancy 
work, it is frequently called — send samples of patterns to the 
knitting machine shop with an order for pressers to duplicate 
the sample or to make similar designs adaptable to the machines 
in question. This puts all of the responsibility for the work on 
the knitting machine shop, which some shops offset by a charge 
for the analysis of the sample. 

Advantages of Making Pattern Wheels in the Mill. — The 
original reasons for resorting to the machine shop were that it 
was equipped with cutting machinery, whereas the mill was 
not, and that the builder of the machine was familiar with the 
numbers of needles in different-sized machines and with the 
rules for determining the sizes of the pressers. But since modern 
mills are generally equipped with a gear cutter, and since presser 
calculations are very simple, the practice of keeping all of this 
work within the mill is increasing. There are many other ex- 
cellent reasons why it should increase. For instance, the knitter 
can tell exactly how many feeds he is running on each machine, 
and just how many needles are in his cylinders, whereas the 
records of the machine shop may not be sufficiently complete to 
show all this. Besides, the mill management may have the 
pressers made according to the urgency of its own particular 
case, whereas the machine shop is supposed not to give pri- 
ority to any particular order. Moreover, in case of a mistake 
it may be corrected in the mill with the least delay. And finally 
the knitter should make his own designs and his own presser- 
diagrams, for it is generally easier for the knitter to learn this 
than it is to convey clearly to a machinist just what is wanted. 

Relation of Diameter and Cuts. — If the machines have 
20 needles to the inch and the pattern contains 180 needles, then 
the circumference of the presser should be 180 -^ 20 or 9 inches, 



Figure Designing with Pattern Wheels 207 

and the diameter will necessarily be 9 -=- 3.14 inches = 2.86, 
provided no allowance is made for tipping the presser or for 
the difference between pitch diameter and actual diameter. In 
many cases no allowance is made. But the reasons for such 
allowances should be understood for use when they are needed. 
Tip of Spring-needle Pressers. — In most American loop- 
wheel machinery the presser is kept in position on its stud by 
its own weight, but this cannot always be depended upon, for 
the action of the needles has a tendency to raise the presser; 
consequently, it is tipped so that the edge which is approaching 
the needles is a little lower than the edge which is leaving them. 
Five degrees is a conventional allowance. The necessary al- 
lowance is sufficient to keep the presser down surely against the 
shoulder on the stud. If it is not kept down, knitting will stop 
at that feed, since no stitches will be cleared there. Also, the 
yarn fed at that feed will run loose and the design will be spoiled. 
If the presser is tipped, the marks on the presser should be 
farther apart than the needles, since the edge of the presser has 
to travel farther than the needles. 

Pitch Diameter. — The allowance for difference between pitch 
diameter and actual diameter would be absolutely necessary if 
the presser teeth were long like gear teeth, but for loop-wheel 
machines they are not. The cut which engages the needle is 
generally only two or three hundredths of an inch deep, which 
depth is negligible. 

Diameter Allowance. — In the light of the above, a fairly 
safe rule is to begin with the presser two per cent larger than 
the calculations require, and to depend on the tip of the presser 
for the exact adjustment of the cuts to the needles. Special 
cases require special allowance, but the knitter can undoubtedly 
make these better from experiment than from general rules. 

Latch-needle Pattern Wheels. — Selectors for latch-needle 
machines are not included in the above, for they run at a fixed 
angle, are generally secured to the stud, and operate more like 
gears.^ Moreover, they are generally made in the knitting- 
machme shop, since they are preferably made of hardened steel, 
and since their manufacture requires more mechanical skill 
than the knitter may reasonably be expected to have. 

Plain Pressers Like Raising Cams. — The fundamental 
Feature of the pattern wheel is well shown by comparison with 
the plain presser used in loop-wheel machines. (In latch-needle 



208 The Science of Knitting 

machines the cam which clears the latch corresponds to the plain 
presser.) The plain presser presses all of the needles, so it may 
be any size, provided its arc of contact is sufficient to enable 
surely landing the stitch. If it is small, it merely revolves 
faster than if it is large, but even then it does not have to keep 
step with the needles. This is shown by the fact that in many 
cases plain pressers are merely cams, called flat or stationary 
pressers. These pressers correspond exactly with the raising 
cams in the latch-needle machine, in that they are no respecters 
of needles. 

Pattern Wheel must Count Needles. — On the contrary, the 
pattern presser must be a respecter of needles, which necessi- 
tates that it must keep track of every needle — actually count 
needles. This is the fundamental requirement of the pattern 
presser. It follows then that it need not be a wheel, or any 
particular device, so long as it keeps its count. Consequently, a 
chain meets the requirements, or a magazine of pressers arranged 
to displace each other successively in certain order. 

Relation of Size of Presser to Number of Patterns. — The 
pattern presser really counts patterns, that is, groups of needles, 
instead of individual needles, which individual counting is done 
by the cuts of the pattern. Therefore, the size requirement of 
the presser is that it shall contain a whole number of patterns. It 
must be large enough to contain one pattern, and after that, it 
may contain as many more as convenience dictates, since the 
design is unaffected by the number of patterns contained by the 
presser. 

Limitations to Size of Presser. — There are practical limita-t 
tions to the size of the presser too numerous for generalization,! 
but a few of them are of sufficient importance to warrant their 
mention. On the small side, the limit is generally the least 
number of cuts which will insure landing the stitch; although 
sometimes the hub of the presser is so big that the number of 
cuts has to be correspondingly big. However, this difficulty is 
purely mechanical; consequently, it may be overcome by the use 
of a small stud and hub. On the large side, there are such limi- 
tations as the available space on the machine, the weight of 
presser which the needle beards can safely -drive, the cost of 
turning and cutting a big wheel, and the extent of the index 
with which the cutting is to be done. It is not infrequent for a 
knitter to make a design for a certain number of feeds and then 



Figure Designing with Pattern Wheels 209 

find that the available space is insufficient for the same number 
of pressers large enough to carry the pattern. 

Position of Presser. — The position of the presser with respect 
to the needle hne affects the design. For instance, changing a 
presser from the outside of the needle line to the inside inverts the 
design. Therefore, the position of the presser is required for 
mtelhgent designing. Illustration 5 shows the positions which 
are likely to be encountered. The machine is anti-clockwise with 




Illustration 5. 
The three usual presser positions. 

he fabric running downward and facing outward. However 
heoretically, the kind of machine has notliing to do with the 
)osition of the pressers, since the latter might be placed in any 
>ne ot three positions on any machine. 

Representing Presser by a Paper Ring. - It is evident that 
he directions of motion of the inside presser and the outside 
resser are opposite. It is also evident thkt the vertical presser 
lay be considered to revolve like the inside presser or the outside 
resser according to whether its outside face or inside face is 
aken as the top. It is shown farther on that a paper pattern 
lay be formed m a circle to represent the circumference of the 
resser. Then exact comparison may be made between the actual 
resser and the circular pattern, with the circular pattern held 
I the position of the presser and with the operating side of the 
attern considered the same as that of the presser. 



210 The Science of Knitting 

Printing Presser with Needles. — When it is inconvenient to 
have pressers cut by machine, the following method is sometimes 
used. The presser blank is turned to the calculated .size, orj 
slightly over that size, and then run on the knitting machme with j 
moderate pressure against the shanks of the needles, where they 
are stiff. The presser becomes marked by the needles according 
to the needle spacing. These marks are counted and there should 
be as many as there are needles in the pattern, or in a multiple of 
it. If there are too many prints in the presser, it is turned down 
slightly and reprinted until it contains just the right number. 
Then the prints which are to skip needles are made deep enough 
and wide enough to skip with the use of a file or a hack saw 
or both. 

Since designs with tuck stitches are the commonest, the dis- 
cussion is continued with respect to tuck work; but the principles 
apply to practically all circular pattern devices. 

Presser Like a Wheel Printing a Ribbon. — From the fact that 
the presser operates directly on the needles it may be considered to 
operate directly on the fabric ; and since the fabric travels in a hel- 
ical path, the presser may be considered to be a printing wheel 
beneath which the ribbon of fabric runs and receives the pattern 
impression. The subject will be treated in accordance with these 
considerations, starting with a single pattern wheel. Suppose that 
the circumference of the pattern wheel divides a whole number of 
times — that is, divides integrally — into the circumference of the 
fabric. Then whatever impressions are on the presser will fall in 
line with the wales and so make what are called vertical stripes. 
Now, the pattern on the presser is not changeable without recut- 
ting the presser, so the pattern is considered to be fixed. 

Causes of Changes in the Figures. — The different figures in 
the fabric which may be obtained from any pattern are caused 
by change in the number of needles, or by change in the direction 
of motion of the machine. Evidently, change in the direction 
of motion of the machine changes the end of the pattern which 
comes on the fabric first and change in the number of needles tips 
the stripes out of their vertical position. The essential part of 
figure designing consists of the few simple principles which con- 
nect these changes of needles and of motion with the resulting 
changes, in the vertical stri])es. 

Definition of Pattern. — In order to avoid confusion it is I 
necessary to understand clearly what each term means and to 



Figure Designing with Pattern Wheels 211 

restrict its use to that particular meaning. One of the obstacles 
heretofore in the way of a clear description of the principles of 
figure designing has been the lack of such understanding. For 
instance, it has been customary to use the term pattern to desig- 
nate both the impressions on the circumference of the presser and 
the figures in the fabric obtainable with it. But since there may 
be at least as many of these figures as the number of needles 
in one circumference of a non-repeating presser, it is evidently 
necessary to distinguish between the arrangement of impressions 
on the presser, which is fixed, and the result in the fabric, which 




Illustration 6. 

A single tuck stitch viewed from the back of the fabric. 
A is the held loop, B is the tuck loop. 



is variable. Therefore, it is advisable to restrict the term pattern 
to the impressions around the circumference of the presser and to its 
duplication along the ribbon of fabric. Moreover, some pressers 
'are sufficiently large to contain the pattern more than once, so 
the actual pattern is any successive portion of the circumference of 
the presser or of the ribbon of fabric which does not repeat itself. 

Tuck Stitch. — Illustration 6 shows a tuck stitch viewed from 
the back of the fabric. It is seen to consist of a V-shaped loop 



212 



The Science of Knitting 



with the point upward and a long loop from the next lower course, 
through both of which a loop from the next higher course is drawn. 
The term tuck stitch is also used to indicate either the inverted 
V-shaped loop or the long loop. In order to avoid confusion it | 
seems advisable to restrict the term tuck stitch to the combina- 
tion just described, to call the inverted V-shaped loop the tuck 
loop and to call the long loop the held loop. This agrees well with 
the conventions and the facts, since the inverted V-shaped loop 
is produced at what is called the tuck feed and since the long loop 
is held over a course before it is cleared. 

Illustration 7 shows a double-tuck stitch viewed from the back 
of the fabric. In this there are two tuck loops and the held loop 




Illustration 7. 

A double tuck stitch viewed from the back of the fabric. A ia the held loop. 

B is the first tuck loop. C is the second tuck loop. 



is carried over two courses before it is cleared. When the tuck 
stitch contains more than one tuck loop, these are numbered 
in the order of their formation, so in Illustration 7 the longest 
tuck loop is No. 1 and the shortest one is No. 2. The longest loop 
of all remains the held loop. 

Illustration 8 shows four adjoining tucks in the same course 
viewed from the back of the fabric. Each held loop is like the 
one in the single tuck, but the tuck loop appears as a long loose 
thread on the back of the fabric. 

Before the stitches are further discussed, it should be stated 
that these sketches are diagrammatic and that the actual stitches 
would not always be recognized from sketches of this kind. 
Indeed, one of the remarkable things about tuck-stitch combina- 



Figure Designing with Pattern Wheels 213 

tions is how different they look from what is expected. This 
introduces one of the principal characteristics of tuck stitches, 
the distortion which they produce in the fabric. 




Illustration 8. 

Back view of four successive single tucks in the same course. A, A, A, A are 
the held loops. B is the floated loop resulting from the four tuck loops. 

Fabric Distortion due to Tuck Stitches 

In plain fabric one of the requirements for good fabric is to 
have the stitches all alike. But consideration of Illustration 6, 
single tuck, shows that if the yarn is fed uniformly, the tuck loop 
will be too long and the held loop will be too short . Consequently 
tuck stitches pucker the fabric in the locality of the tucks. The 
general effect is to shorten the fabric along the wales and widen 
it along the courses. For this reason smaller-size cylinders are 
needed for tuck work than for plain work. The extent of the 
change depends largely on the proportion of tuck stitches to 
plain stitches. Some designs contain so few tucks that the widen- 
ing is inappreciable. 

It is evident that the held loop has a tendency to steal some 
yarn from its adjoining loops in the same course; and, although it 
is not so evident, still it is just as true, that the tuck loop has a 



214 The Science of Knitting 

tendency to lend some yarn to the adjoining loops in its course. 
Therefore, as a general rule, loops next to held loops in the same 
course are short, and loops next to tuck loops in the same course are 
long. But it must be remembered that a series of tucks close 
together may produce a different effect than that produced by 
one isolated tuck stitch. Indeed, the variations due to stitch •' 
distortion alone are too numerous to classify. 

Tuck-stitch Limits 

Necessary to clear Held Loops. — It was shown that the tuck 
stitch involves the drawing of a loop through the tuck loop and 
the held loop. In other words, unless the tuck loop and held 
loop are cleared, there can be no tuck stitch. This is true prac- 
tically as well as theoretically, since the needle must be cleared 
or else it or the loops on it must break. Consequently, the 
strength of the yarn is a factor which determines how many tuck 
loops may be carried on one needle. The strength of the needle 
is generally sufficient, provided the burden of loops can be 
thoroughly cleared within reasonable time, but it is difficult to 
clear many loops at a time, and failure to clear them allows so 
many loops to accumulate on the needle that their combined 
strength ultimately bends or breaks it. From five to seven tucks 
on the needle, according to the yarn and the machine, is con- 
sidered the practical limit. 

The number of adjoining tucks along a course is limited in a 
different way. Consideration of Illustration 8 shows the tuck 
loop to be a long loose loop on the back of the fabric. In reality, 
the loop is longer than it is shown, for two reasons : one is that 
the fabric generally narrows on leaving the needles, which makes 
the loop longer by comparison; and the other is that there was as 
much yarn supplied to this loop as to the four stitches which it 
crosses. The result is that the back of the fabric is not only 
unsightly, but these loops catch and tear in use, which makes the 
fabric less durable than it would be otherwise. Six adjoining 
tucks along a course is considered the practical limit. 

The Tuck Loop is kept out of the Face of the Fabric 

Examination of any of Illustrations 6, 7 and 8 shows that the 
tuck loop is kept on the back of the fabric. This is not of much 
importance when the yarn is all of the same color, but when 



Figure Designing with Pattern Wheels 



215 



different colored threads are used, it affords an opportunity for 
keeping the tucked color out of the face at intervals. This in- 
troduces the customary arrangement of feeds. We have to 
start with: a tuck must be cleared; the number of adjoining 
tucks both horizontally and vertically is limited; and two differ- 
ent colors are generally used. If it were not for the first two con- 
ditions, the idea would at once suggest itself to use two colors 




Illustration 9. 

Face view of a white block in a mixed field. The floated threads are seen 
behind the white held loops. 



of marked contrast, say black and white, and to reverse them 
alternately from face to back. This would make, say, a black 
figure on a white field, which constitutes a distinct design. But 
since the number of successive tucks in either direction is ad- 
visably not over six, the greatest extent of the figure or of any 
part of the field would be six stitches in height and in width, 
and even that size is accompanied with much puckering. The 
other alternative is to keep the first color in the face, to keep the 
second color in the face part of the time, — when it combines with 
the first color to make a mixed field, — and to throw the second 
color to the back during the rest of the time in order to leave the 



216 The Science of Knitting 

first color entirely in the face for a short interval to form the 
small solid figure. Illustration 9 shows the face of a piece of 
fabric made in this way. The black thread is thrown back out 
of the mixed field in order to leave the white exclusively on the 
face to form the rectangular figure. The equipment necessary 
to produce this is one tuck pressure alternating with a plain 
presser, which is the combination used in most figure designing 
when colors are used and even when they are not. Evidently 
this requires an even number of feeds, 2, 4, 6, 8, etc. To reverse 
the colors at the feeds reverses the color of the figure but leaves the 
field unchanged, since both threads combine to form the field. 

Relation of Pattern Wheel and Yam. — Since one color re- 
mains in the face all of the time, the plain presser operates im- 
mediately after that color is fed, as it does with plain fabric. 
Consequently, the tuck presser operates on the needles im- 
mediately after the feeding of the yarn which is sometimes 
thrown on the back of the fabric. 

The use of colors is not necessary, since the contrast between 
the tuck and the plain stitches shows the design clearly enough 
for most purposes and sometimes more pleasingly than with 
the assistance of colors. 

The effect produced in the fabric by the pattern is probably 
best called the design. The design, like the pattern, is that portion 
of the fabric which entirely repeats itself. It follows then that 
there are no fractional designs. 

The design is composed of two parts, the figure, and its back- 
ground, the field. 

The main technical feature of figure design is the controlled 
disposition of the tucks in the field, which control embraces the 
size of the figure and of the field, the shape and position of the 
figure, and its relation to the top of the fabric. 

Almost any knitter can make a design by filing nicks in a 
presser and putting it on the machine, just as almost any cook 
can make a cake by mixing flour, sugar, eggs and baking powder 
and putting the mixture in the oven. But it takes a fairly good 
knitter to nick the presser so as to obtain the exact design de- 
sired, just as it takes a fairly good cook to mix batter which 
will turn out a predetermined kind of cake. 

Learning to Design. — The object of this discussion is to en- 
able the knitter to know how to nick the presser in order to 
have the design come out just as he desires, instead of upside 



Figure Designing with Pattern Wheels 217 

down, backward or entirely different from that which he had 
planned. It is exact knowledge such as this which the knitter 
needs, and it cannot be obtained without a certain amount of 
mental effort. However, if that effort is well directed, the sub- 
ject should be learned readily and retained permanently. Both 
of these objects may be accomplished by learning first how to 
work out the principles; second, by learning the principles; and 
last, by learning the application of them ; and then remembering 
these divisions in the same order. The application of the prin- 
ciples involves the most details and so is easily forgotten; more- 
over, even when remembered, the necessity for use may be on 
some unfamiliar type of machine, so the principles themselves 
will be needed in order to work out the application. Conse- 
quently, the principles are the essentials, but disuse may cause 
even them to be forgotten. However, if the method of deriv- 
ing the principles is remembered, then whenever any question 
regarding figure design arises, the knitter can without books or 
assistance start right at the bottom and derive not only the 
principles but the application of them to any machine. The 
subject is developed in line with the above suggestions, by estab- 
lishing unmistakable terms, by using the analogy of the printing 
wheel on the ribbon, and by gradually introducing the varia- 
tions which may be produced with the fixed pattern. 

The size of the design is measured in stitches, since this unit 
has a fixed connection with the needles, whereas any other unit 
has not. 

Consider that from a piece of fabric knit with two feeds — 
one, tuck, and the other, plain — the following pattern is ob- 
tained by copying a tuck course until repetition of the pattern 
begins : 

oooooooooooooxoxoxoxoooxoxoxoxoooooooxoxoooooooxox 

The ciphers represent plain stitches and the cross-marks indi- 
cate, tuck stitches, showing altogether fifty needles in the pat- 
tern. It is desired to know what designs are possible with this 
pattern. 

Winding Strip Pattern to Make the Design. — If the above- 
mentioned pattern is repeated several times on a long strip of 
paper equally divided in spaces corresponding to needles, and 
then this piece of paper is wound helically to form a tube, the 
cross marks will show different figures according to the diameter 



218 



The Science of Knitting 



of the tube, among which figures will be those shown in Illus- \ 
trations 10, 11, 12, 13, 14. But it is somewhat difficult to ar- ' 
range and hold such a long strip, so a substitute may be made 
for No. 10, say, by copying the 50-needle pattern on cross-section 
paper so that the same needles fall in the same vertical lines, as 








Models of tubular pattern fabrics. The designs are such as are obtainable 
with the pattern shown in 20 by change in the number of needles and the 
direction of motion of the machine. The results could be duplicated practi- 
cally with a two-feed machine, one feed having a tuck presser cut like one 
row of 20 and the other feed having a plain presser. The models are not 
shown for Nos. 25 to 30 inclusive. 

No. 10. Vertical stripes caused by the use of a number of needles equal to 
a multiple of the pattern. The fabric motion is right-hand. No. 20 is the 
development of No. 10, and would be unchanged for left-hand motion. 

No. 11. Inclined stripes caused by the use of slight overlap (needles one 
less than a multiple of the pattern). The motion is right-hand. No. 21 is the 
development. 

No. 12. Stripes inclined diagonally in two directions, caused by the use of 
overlap of half a pattern division (needles five less than a multiple of the pat- 
tern). The motion is right-hand. No. 22 is the development. 

No. 13. Inclined figure caused by the use of a number of needles nearly 
one pattern division less than a multiple of the pattern (needles nine less — 
the division is ten). No. 23 is the development. 

No. 14. Vertical figure caused by the use of a number of needles one divi- 
sion less than a multiple of pattern (needles ten less). The motion is right- 
hand. No. 24 is the development. Notice that the front of the pattern, 
indicated by the double tuck, is uppermost. 

in Illustration 20. If this is cut out and the ends are curved to 
meet, the stripes will be just like those in Illustration 10. Evi- 
dently, there are 50 needles in the circumference the same as 
in the pattern. From this comes the conclusion that when the 
number of needles in the cylinder is the same as the number in 
the pattern the design consists of vertical stripes. Now it is 
evident that two strips just like Illustration 20 might be pieced 
end to end, or three or any number, and still the design would 
be vertical stripes, from which comes the conclusion that when 



Figure Designing with Pattern Wheels 219 

the pattern divides the needles integrally the design consists of ver~ 
tical repetitions of the elements of the pattern. 

Development. — When a tubular figure is cut lengthwise and 
spread out, it is called the development of the original figure 
Consequently, Illustration 20 is the development of Illustration 
10, also 21 is the development of 11 and so on, each development 








No. 20. 
No. 22. 



Development of No. 10. No. 21. Development of No. 11 

Development of No. 12. No. 23. Development of No. 13. 

INo. 24. Development of No. 14. 



)eing designated by the number which is ten greater than that 
)f the figure. 

Decreasing the Number of Needles in the Cylinder. — Con- 

idermg Illustration 21 the observer will notice that it is made by 
epeatmg the pattern over itself, but that each repetition start- 
tig from the lower right corner is one needle to the left of 



220 The Science of Knitting 

that above it, so that the ends have a step-hke appearance. If 
the piece of paper is cut out and the ends are matched so that 
the double courses marked A, B, C, D meet, then development 
21 will be like tube 11, but the distance around the tube will be 
only 49 needles, which is one less than the number in the pattern. 
Evidently, the vertical stripes are tipped with the bottoms to 
the right, in which direction the fabric is supposed to be moving, 
since the double course marked is free, as if the yarn were 
raveled to that point. If other pieces like 21 but with 50 needles 
were put end to end with 21, and formed into a tube with cor- 
responding terminal courses meeting as they do in Illustration 
21, then the number of needles might be 99, 149, 199, etc., 
always 1 less than a whole number of patterns, and the inclina- 
tion would be the same as in 21, which shows that when the 
number of needles is one less than an exact multiple of the 
pattern, the upper end of the vertical stripes falls back from 
the direction of motion of the fabric. That is, the front part of 
the pattern falls back over the front part of the pattern previously 
knit, or overlaps it. 

Development 22 has five needles less than the pattern, and it 
will be noticed that the inclination has gone so far that the 
stripes begin to mix. 

Development 23 has 9 needles less than the pattern and it is 
evident that a figure is beginning to form from the gathering 
together of one element from each stripe with the front of the 
pattern uppermost. 

Condition for Desired Design. — Development 24 has 10 
needles less than the pattern and shows the figure completely 
formed. In this the pattern may be read horizontally to the 
left along the courses, or vertically down the wales. This is 
the result generally sought in figure designing — that is, one in 
which the pattern or horizontal portion is repeated vertically 
in the figure. To obtain this, the pattern is divided into sec- 
tions of equal length, and the impressions in each section, or 
division, are arranged with some sort of symmetry about the 
middle of the division. It will be noticed that division 5 is 
blank. This is to make a break in the vertical effect, which 
would otherwise still be a vertical stripe (although an irregular 
one) since it is made up of portions of each division of the pattern. 

Reversing Motion. — Now consider the machine to contain 
50, or 100, or 150 needles makiag vertical stripes, except that 



Figure Designing with Pattern Wheels 221 

it turns in the opposite direction so that the fabric moves to the 
left side instead of to the right. Note, however, that since it is 
agreed to call the part of the pattern which first makes its im- 
pression the front, the beginning of the pattern is now on the 
left instead of on the right. In other words, when the motion 
IS reversed, the front of the pattern is also reversed. Evidently 
with the number of needles just given the effect in the fabric 
will be vertical Imes as before, so that Illustration 20 will still 
represent the development. 

For one needle taken out, the development is like that in 
Illustration 25, and for 10 needles taken out, the development is 
like that m Illustration 26. 

From Illustrations 24 and 26 it follows as it did for motion in 
the opposite du-ection that when the number of needles in the 
cylmder fails to divide by the number in the pattern by one 
division of the pattern, then the divisions of the pattern 
arrange themselves vertically with the front of the division at 
the top. Therefore, one rule holds for each direction of 
motion. 

Increasing the Number of Needles in the Cylinder. - When 
the total number of needles m the cylinder is one division of 
the pattern more than a whole number of patterns, the result for 
right-hand motion is shown by Illustration 27, and for left- 
hand motion, by Illustration 28, both of which show that the 
tront of the pattern is at the bottom of the figure. 

From the preceding comes the general fundamental rule of 
figure designmg. The divisions of the pattern arrange themselves 
vertically ^th the front [^^Z^^ ^vhen the needles in the 
cylinder are one division (^""^t') ^,^hole number of patterns. 

Needle Changes of More than One Division. — So far the 
change m the total number of needles in the cylinder has not 
been more than one section - that is, 10 needles -from an 
3qual division by the pattern. If the change extends beyond 
me division of needles, the figure inclines and reforms into two 
igures when the discrepancy from an equal division by the 
)attern is two divisions, as it is seen for right-hand motion in 
llustration 29 for needles two divisions less than one pattern 
■nd m Illustration 30 for needles two divisions more than one 
lattern. 



fft^«. 


M J""! 


- -- s z.l 


_. _-g: 






























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:g=^=gi=? 




_g < i 




S 'i 


-,- S 




,"? „" ' 


g g :!:i 




■&?tSJ^ 


-S-^ 


s s 


.: i 
























<-^T'Z'' :: 




3 




"g g 












■J-g-R 






S 




g 










-g_i^g 8 




: :: g s 


i ""8 s 










> g g"S " 




_« g ; 




















" g g 




g'g ^ 








-S-g__ 




^g g : 




i g:: 








_g~^ 




:?.. 










:: 





o 

No. 25. Development of a model such as No. 11 would be with left-hand 
motion. Comparison with 21 shows that reversal of tiie motion reverses the 
initial inclination of the stripes. 

No. 26. Development of a model such as No. 14 would be with left-hand 
motion. Comparison with 14 and 24 shows that reversal of the direction of 
motion inverts the figure abolit a horizontal axis in its plane. 

No. 27. Development of a model such as No. 14 would be for needles one 
division more than a multiple of the pattern and for right-hand motion. 

No. 28. Same as No. 27, but for left-hand motion. Comparisons of 24 
with 28 and of 26 with 27 show that reversal of both the lap and the direction 
of motion leaves the figure undisturbed. 

No. 29. Development obtained by the use of a number of needles two 
divisions less than a multiple of the pattern and right-hand motion. Notice 
the division of the pattern into two figures instead of one. 

No. 30. Development obtained by the use of a number of needles two 
divisions more than a multiple of the pattern and right-hand motion. Notice 
the division of the pattern into two figures instead of one. (222) 



Figure Designing with Pattern Wheels 223 

Advantages of Paper Strip Method. — The above method of 
connecting the pattern and the design should be remembered, 
for It affords a convenient way of working from the design 
right back to the tube of fabric with the direction of motion and 
needle relation clearly shown. Indeed, this method is preferable 
to working exclusively on the machine, smce machines are re- 
stricted to a narrow range of variation, whereas this paper method 
IS subject to all of the variations possible; moreover, it is graphical, 
even to the dupHcation of an equivalent tube, and best of aU, it 
proves what will be obtained, whereas the ordinary method' of 
drawmg the figure in a rectangle is not susceptible of proof that 
the result in the fabric will be as it appears m the plan. 

The variations due to more extensive overlap may also be 
shown by this method, but they are more readily shown by the 
followmg one which is substantially an abbreviation of the one 
just given, and is advantageous in that it is much quicker, and 
does not require cross-section paper. It does not, however, show 
the slight variations obtainable by a change of needles between 
whole divisions of the pattern. 

Numerical Method 

For convenience consider a pattern having five divisions of ten 
needles each, just such as has been used. The width of the pat- 
tern may be any number of feeds. Number these divisions 1, 2 
3, 4, 5, beginning with the one which first makes its impression' 
Suppose that the machine has ten needles, which is one division. 
Then the first division will just finish the first revolution, the sec- 
ond division will just finish the second revolution, etc.^ so that 
if the fabric is cut lengthwise between the first and the tenth 
needle, it will show the pattern in the numerical order of its 
divisions with number one at the bottom: Illustration 32. 

Now, consider that the machine has 20 needles, which is two 
divisions. Then the first revolution will take the first two divi- 
sions, the second revolution wiU take the thu-d and fourth divi- 
sions, and the third revolution will take the last division and 
the first one over again in order to fill up. Consequently, when 
the tube is cut open and flattened out, the different divisions 
will appear on it as in Illustration 33. It is evident that 
four straight Imes will not bound this design, but that six are 
required. The reason for this is clearly that the number of 
divisions in the pattern is not evenly divisible by two, the num- 



224 The Science of Knitting 

ber of divisions of lap. In each of these cases, and in those that 
immediately follow, the flattened piece of fabric is a develop- 
ment of the tube, with the division following a wale, instead of 
following the end of the pattern as it is shown in Illustra- 
tions 21 to 24. It is noticeable that when there is one division 
of needles there is only one design of one figure; but when there 
are two divisions, there are two designs each composed of two 
figures. 

Now consider the machine to contain three divisions of needles, 
that is, 30. The fabric appears like Illustration 34'. Evidently, 
there are three different designs, each composed of three groups 
of figures. 

For four divisions of needles there are really four different 
designs, as Illustration 35 indicates; but they all look like Il- 
lustration 32, except that now division 1 is at the top instead 
of at the bottom. 

Of course, when the machine contains five divisions of needles, 
the fabric shows vertical stripes corresponding to each section 
as Illustration 20 shows. 

For six divisions of needles. Illustration 36, the fabric shows 
just what it did for one division. This may be seen by a com- 
parison of 36 and 32 which are put close together for the purpose. 

Range of Designs. — Moreover, it will be found that all of 
the vertical figures obtainable with any number of needles are 
shown by the changes between one division and the total num- 
ber of divisions in the pattern. Of course, the inclination of 
the stripes is not shown within that range, since all of the stripes 
do not appear until the number of needles in the cylinder is 
equal to the number of needles in the pattern. But one more 
division is enough to give all of the inclinations of the stripes. 
Moreover, a conglomeration is obtainable with a number of 
needles less than One division. So, in general, all obtainable de- 
signs including all elements of the pattern are embraced by a range of 
needles from zero to one division more than the length of the pattern. 

Real and Apparent Design. — Before going farther with the 
above understanding of the word design, it is necessary to dis- 
tinguish the real frond the apparent design. Take Illustration 
33 for instance. It shows two designs, each with two figures, 
of which one is the reverse of the other. Now refer to 37 which 
is the same as 33, except that the piece of fabric is larger, and 
affords a more comprehensive view of the designs. Reading 



Figure Designing with Pattern Wheels 



225 



32. 



Numerical Diagrams 
For explanation see Numerical ^Method, page 223. 



Arrangement of pat- 
tern divisions in 
the fabric when the 
number of needles 
is just one pattern 
division. 



4 


3 


2 


1 


5 


4 


3 


2 


1 


5 


4 


3 


2 


1 





4 


3 


2 


1 


5 


4 


3 


9 


1 

















4 


3 


2 


1 


5 


4 


3 


2 


1 


a 


4 


3 


2 


1 


f) 


4 


3 














1 


5 1 4 


3 


2 


1 


5 1 4 1 3 


2 


1 



36. Ditto six pattern di- 
visions. 



5 


4 


3 


2 


1 


5 


4 


3 


2 


1 



33. 



Arrangement of pat- 
tern divisions when 
the number of nee- 
dles in the cylinder 
is two pattern di- 
visions. 



3 


2 


1 





4 


3 J 


1 


5 


4 


3 


2 


1 ; 5 


4 


3 


2 


1 


5 


4 


3 


2 


1 


5 


4 


3 


2 


1 


5 


4 


3 


2 


1 


5 


4 


3 


2 1 5 


4 


3 





1 


5 4 3 


2 


1 


T 


4 


3 2 1 


5 


4 


3 


2 


1 5 4 


3 


2 


1 



37. Ditto seven pat- 
tern divisions. 



5 4 1 3 
2 1 1 5 

4 1 3 1 2 


JJ5 

3 1 2 


4 
1 



34. 



Arrangement of pat- 
tern divisions when 
the number of nee- 
dles in the cylinder 
is three pattern di- 
visions. 



2 


1 


5 


4 1 3 


2 


1 5 


4 


3 


2 


1 


5 


4 


3 2 


1 


5 


4 


3 


2 


1 


5 


4 


3 


2 


1 


5 


4 


3 


2 


1 


5 


4 1 3 


2 


1 


5 


4 


3 


2 


1 


5 


4 


3 


2 


1 


5 


4 


3 


2 


1 


^574 


3 


2 


1 
3 


5 
2 


4 
1 


3 2 1 
5 1 4 3 


5 

2 


4 

1 



38. Ditto eight pat- 
tern divisions. 





5 14 13 12 




1 

2 
3 


15 


4 


3 

4 
5 


2 
3 
4 


1 
2 
3 


5 
1 
2 


4 
5 

1 


3 
4 
5 






1| 5 1 4 1 3 


1 

2 


5 

1 




5. 


Tl 1| 5 i 4 






3 1 2-| 1 [T 




4 
5 

1 


3 
4 
5 


2 
3 

4 


1 

2 
3 


5 
2 


4 
5 
1 


3 

4 
5 


2 
3 

4 


1 

2 
3 


30. Ditto nine 




4 1 3 1 2 1 1 


pattern di- 








visions. 


Ditto four pattern di- 


2 


1 


5 


4 


3 


9 


1 [5 


4 




visions. 


3 


2 n~i 


5 


4 


3 


2 "rj5 










4 3 1 2 rr, 


5 


4 


3 2 n" 





Illustrations 32 to 39, inclusive. 



226 



The Science of Knitting 



the numbers upward in vertical columns, one sees that the group- 
ing 24135 constantly repeats itself over the whole extent of the 
fabric. Consequently, this apparent design fills the condition 
for a design, namely, that it is an effect which entirely repeats 
itself. In short, as far as appearances are concerned, there 
is but one single figure design for each case in which the number 
of needles is a multiple of the pattern division. Illustration 38 
shows this for Illustration 34, as does 39 for 35. 

Key to Illustrations ii to 28, Inclusive 



Overlap. 
Needle remain- 
der less than a 
whole number 
of patterns. 



Right-hand Motion 



Left-hand Motion 



Underlap, 

Remainder 
more than a 
whole number 
of patterns. 



Illustrations 
11,12,13,14, 
21,22,23,24 



Illustration 

27 



Illustrations 
25,26 



Illustration 

28 



The direction of motion and lap is shown on the upper and left 
margins of the table. 

The diagram in the right corner of the squares is recognized 
as the diagram produced by the given pattern. The position 
of the diagram is for lap of one division according to the direction 
of lap and the direction of motion given. 

The diagram in the left corner of the squares shows how the 
vertical Unes start to incHne when a shght change in the direction 
of lap IS made from an equal division of cyHnder needles by the 
pattern. 

It is evident that whereas a change of either direction of 
lap or direction of motion reverses the position of the design 
about a horizontal axis, the change of both together leaves the 
design undisturbed. 



Figure Designing with Paticern Wheels 227 

Inclination of Designs. — It is evident, however, that the 
relative arrangement of these apparent designs is different for 
each change of needles amounting to a pattern division. For 
one division, or six divisions, or eleven divisions, etc., each, 
the design rises to the right above the preceding one by the 
width of the pattern (for right-hand motion of the fabric). But 
when the number of needles is two divisions, seven divisions, 
twelve divisions, etc., the direction of inclination is the opposite 
and the second rises two widths above the first, and so on. 
Illustrations from 36 to 39 inclusive show the relative arrange- 
ments of the apparent designs for five section patterns. It is 
unnecessary to try to remember these relations, or even the 
groupings. But it is advisable to remember the method, for then 
all of this information may be quickly obtained when needed, 
and without the necessity of sketching the actual design. This 
method affords a convenient way of telling what the design will 
be for a lap of any number of divisions. , 

It will be recalled that the width of the strip pattern may be 
any number of feeds. But a certain length was taken, namely 
five divisions of 10 needles each, which length has not changed. 
Therefore, if one tuck feed is used, the design will be five tuck 
courses high; if two feeds are used, the design will be ten tuck 
courses high; and in general the height of the design in tuck courses 
will be the number of tuck feeds multiplied by the number of divisions. 

Design Calculations 

The mathematical part of figure designing is the big stumbling 
block to learning how to design from books. However, the cal- 
culations in connection with figure designing are very simple, 
as the following explanation will show. 

There are four points to consider, namely: 
The number of needles in the cylinder. 
The width of the design (horizontally). 
The length of the pattern. 
The height of the design. 

Evidently, the easiest way to consider them is one at a time. 
The number of needles in the cylinder. A change in this number 
of one or two per cent is allowable in leaded spring-needle ma- 
chines; but other machines are changeable only by the substi- 



228 The Science of Knitting 

tution of a new cylinder, which is expensive and troublesome. 
Consequently, it is generally necessary to adapt the design to 
the number of needles in the machine, and it is advisable to do 
so even in the case of leaded-needle machines, since changing to 
a certain number of needles and retaining that number is some- 
what troublesome. Many users of knitting machinery facilitate 
the manufacture of pattern fabric by having their machines made 
originally with a suitable number of needles in each cylinder. (It 
will be shown later what numbers are suitable.) Since, then, 
the number of needles in the cylinder is sometimes practically 
unchangeable, and at others changeable only inconveniently, 
this number is the basis of the calculations. Therefore, given 
designs should be modified accordingly, or new designs should 
be made accordingly. The numbers of needles in different 
cylinders are generally known to the man who makes or modi- 
fies the design, or may be procured from the manufacturers of 
the machines if the machines are not where the needles may be 
counted. This book gives the numbers of needles for some 
types of machine. 

Illustration 40 will help the balance of the explanation. Dia- 
gram A 1 shows a developed needle line — that is, the circular 
needle line cut open and spread out straight. It might con- 
tain any number of needles, but here for convenience it con- 
tains 65, each one represented by a vertical space. 

The Width of the Design. — This must divide into the num- 
ber of needles in the cylinder, that is, into 65 in this case. If 
the number of needles in the cylinder is not divisible, that is, if 
the number is a prime number, then vertical figures cannot be 
made. Diagonal effects may be produced, but they are not 
considered in this discussion. Therefore, if the number of 
cylinder needles is not divisible, the cylinder is not usable for 
this kind of designing. But in this case the number is divisible, 
since 65 may be divided by 5 and by 13. These are the only 
widths of pattern usable, since they are the only divisors of the 
number of needles. For illustration select 5, since the paper is 
laid off in groups of five. Then 5 is the pattern division, since 
it not only has to divide into the number of needles but also 
into the pattern, as will be shown later. Moreover, it is more 
convenient to continue the discussion with divisions as the 
measure, instead of needles, just as it is more convenient to dis- 
cuss fortunes in thousands of dollars instead of dollars or cents, 



Figure Designing with Pattern Wheels 



229 



both of which are such small units that the figures would be 
cumbersome. 

There are 13 divisions in the cylinder, since 5 divides into 65 
thirteen times. 

The Length of the Pattern. — Now it has been repeatedly- 
shown that the pattern must not divide evenly into the number 



rrr^ 


. X Ijl 


' 




'i 1 - ii 3 ^" : 


:i£_'^" i): 31" iS tf A:' 








































'- - -~ g - 






























T" ^ 












1 1 




^^ 1 j^^ 






• 
























- - -D >. 








































r*i 


1 ' ' 


Tir. - 


1 1 ' i i ■ 1 M 








■ 1 : 1 


























do 




\i/Z 


-|_ -1- _j_ .... 


1 1 




..---.^-.. ...._._...-.-.-.--.-. LL 



Illustration 40. 

Al represents a developed needle line containing 65 needles. The other strips 
show the total pattern lengths and divisions usable with 65 needles. Bl, B2, 
B3 are for underlap. CI, C2 are for overlap. 

of needles by one division. Therefore, the pattern must divide 
into 12 divisions, or into 14 divisions, which numbers are one 
less and one more than the number of divisions in the cylinder. 
Diagrams 51, 52 and 53 contain 12 divisions, and diagrams CI 
and C2 contain 14 divisions. The principal use of these diagrams 
is to make clear this step of the calculations, which is the con- 
fusing one to the student. It should be thoroughly understood, 
that the number of needles is not changed by one division. 
These lengths 5 and C are taken merely for the purpose of de- 
termining what length of pattern is permissible. The reason 
for taking them is at once apparent ; for, evidently, if the pattern 



2^^ The Science of Knitting 

divides these lengths without a remainder, then it must divide 
the number of needles with a remainder of just one division, or 
one design width, which is the condition to be met. 

The B diagrams show that the usual patterns for underlap 
may be 2, 3 or 4 divisions in length. The C diagrams show 
that the usable patterns for overlap may be 2 or 7 divisions in 
length. The inversion of the design caused by change from 
overlap to underlap is shown by Illustrations 24 and 27, and 
is stated in the general rule for tuck figure design. This inver- 
sion of the design is one of the considerations in the selection 
of the lap. 

The Height of the Design. — This is the other consideration in 
the choice of the lap. It is expressed in courses and equals the 
number of divisions of the pattern multiplied by the number 
of feeds. The diagrams show a range of patterns having 2, 3, 4 
and 7 divisions. Suppose four feeds are to be used. Then the 
height of the design in courses may be either 8, 12, 16 or 28. 

This is all there is to customary pattern calculations, when the 
work is based on the number of needles in the cylinder. 

Copying or modifying a given design is one of the most im- 
portant parts of the subject, and it may be explained by follow- 
ing through all of the processes. First, however, it is advisable 
to understand clearly the conventional method of sketching 
designs. 

Representing Tuck Stitches. — It is customary to lay out 
designs on cross-section paper, so that horizontal rows represent 
courses and vertical rows represent wales. When the squares 
contain no crosses, the diagram represents plain fabric. Then 
the individual squares represent loops of plain fabric. They are 
frequently considered to represent stitches, but since a stitch is 
a combination of at least two loops, this practice causes con- 
fusion when it is necessary to reconcile the diagram with the 
fabric which it represents. It should be thoroughly understood, 
therefore, that before any crosses are made on the diagram the 
squares represent loops of plain fabric, and when a cross is put 
in a square it means that what would have been a loop of plain 
fabric is changed to a tuck portion of pattern fabric. This cross 
does not make the diagram look like the fabric which it repre- 
sents, for several reasons. The tuck loop remains on the back 
of the fabric, whereas the face is viewed. The loop which does 
appear on the face is the held loop which belongs in the next 



Figure Designing with Pattern Wheels 231 

square below if single tuck, and in the second square below if 
double tuck. The cross would seem to indicate that the loop 
in that position is more prominent than the others, just as the 
conventional sketches of tuck stitches do, but in reality the 
loops alongside of the marked one are frequently larger. And 
finally, the stresses caused by the tucking pull the wales and 
courses out of the positions which they would occupy in plain 
fabric. Consequently, the only way for the novice to see the 
diagram in the fabric is to see a tuck loop represented by the 
cross, in the place of a corresponding plain loop of plain fa,bric. 
At first it may be necessary to turn the fabric over in order to 
make sure that the tuck loop is there. Inspection against the 
light frequently shows the tuck loop like a broad arrow head 
pointing upward. The student should learn to look at fabric in 
many different positions and in many different lights, for it 
takes thorough acquaintance to prepare one for understanding 
the puzzling combinations which are possible. ) 

Showing Plain and Tuck Courses in Diagram. — It is custom- 
ary to omit the plain courses from the diagrams, for several good 
reasons, such as to save time and space, and probably best of all 
to contract the diagram vertically by omission of the plain 
courses so that it is nearly proportional to the result in the fabric, 
which is reduced vertically by the narrowness of the courses 
with respect to the wales, and by the shortening and widening 
caused by the tucking. But in spite of these reasons it seems 
better, especially for the beginner, to show all courses in the 
diagram, because the true structural representation is more 
desirable than the exact appearance of the design; and because 
the method should not be restricted to a plain presser for every 
second feed, but should accommodate any combination of feeds, 
so that the knitter may not only be able to make novel designs 
but may be encouraged to do so. Accordingly, the diagrams used 
in this book show all courses, but it is to be understood that 
the design will appear in the fabric relatively shorter (vertically) 
than it is in the diagram. This distortion of the diagram may 
be obviated by using paper ruled with spaces about twice as 
wide as they are high. 

Design Should not Begin and End with the Same Kind of 
Course. — A consideration which really belongs to the question 
of the number of needles is of so much importance that it is 
mentioned here also. Since the feeds are generally used in 



232 



The Science of Knitting 



pairs, the height of the diagram must be an even number of 
courses; and since a tuck feed is followed by a plain feed, every 
diagram must begin with a tuck course and end with a plain 
course or vice versa. This arrangement of the feeds in pairs re- 
lieves the designer from remembering that the ending and be- 
ginning of the diagram must be with a different kind of presser 
in order to prevent the meeting of courses of the same kind 




Illustration 41. 



where the designs join. But it is advisable to bear this in mind 
when every other feed is not plain, or else double tucks may 
occur unintentionally at the joining of the designs. 

Illustration 41 shows the face of a small piece of flat under- 
wear fabric knit with a tuck figure design. The portion which 
came last from the needles is at the top. 

Since this is a small piece of fabric, it is impossible to trace 
the pattern along the courses far enough to copy all of it; and 
since the shape is not tubular, it is impossible to determine the 
number of feeds by raveling the threads to one wale and count- 
ing them. 

Analyzing Samples. — There are three ways in which this 
design may be duplicated. One way is to ravel as many courses 
as the design has courses, and to mark on cross-section paper 



Figure Designing with Pattern Wheels 233 

each tuck stitch in the order in which it occurs. Another way, 
is to sketch out on cross-section paper a similar design of appar- 
ently the same width and height. The third, and probably 
most used method, is a combination of the two just mentioned, 
consisting of some raveling and counting assisted by judicious 
estimating. 

The advantages of the third method are that it saves time, 
saves fabric — since frequently only a small piece is available, 
and often the preservation of that is desirable — and further- 
more, it saves eye strain, since a stitch-by-stitch analysis is try- 
ing, especially if the fabric is fine. 

So this method will be used for illustration. At first it is 
desirable to disburden the mind of thought of the direction of 
motion, the number of feeds, and everything but the determin- 
ation of the dimensions of the design. The other details will 
introduce themselves in time for their consideration. 

Recalling that most designs are made by arranging the pkttern 
or the number of needles in the cylinder so that the ends of 
the pattern lap one division over or under, which makes the 
divisions read vertically in the same order in which they read 
horizontally in the pattern, we may assume that this design was 
made in that way. Then the boundary of the design will be 
four sided. The first step is to determine its width and height. 

Determining the Width of the Design. — Consider the width 
first. It is evident that one vertical stripe is the duplicate of 
the others. Therefore, the w^idth equals the number of wales 
from a point in one stripe to the corresponding point in the next 
stripe. The surest way to obtain this width is to ravel the 
rough top edge of the fabric — the bottom will not ravel — 
until it is sufficiently smooth and clear of lint to ravel freely all 
the way across. During this raveling it will be found that a 
plain feed followed a tuck feed in regular succession, conse- 
quently, the number of feeds must be even, that is 2, 4, 6, 8 
etc. This information is needed for future reference. When 
the edge ravels freely, one course should be raveled slowly 
enough to count the wales from, say, the right side of one stripe 
to the right side of the next one. Provision should be made 
to guard against counting too far, since the tendency is to 
count from one tuck to the duplicate tuck inclusive, whereas if 
counting is started with one tuck it should extend to the dupli- 
cate tuck but should not include it. 



234 The Science of Knitting 

Marking the Limiting Stitches. — When it is difficult to dis- 
tinguish the beginning and the ending of the count, the wales 
may be selected before the counting is begun, and marked down 
their centers with a pen. Indeed, one of the fundamental 
qualifications for design analysis is efficiency. It is not un- 
usual to see a sample of fabric raveled nearly away before the 
observer has learned anything definite about it. In order to 
avoid such mistakes, it is advisable to form the habit of making 
every move show for something. Starting and stopping places 
may be marked with a little ink in the loop of the selected 
stitches; or a pin may be put through each selected loop, and 
then the counting may be done between the pins on the sides 
where the heads are not, since the heads prevent counting close 
to the shank of the pin. During the raveling to ascertain the 
arrangement of the tucks, a starting wale should be selected, 
and marked with ink, and then the tucks should be recorded on 
cross-section paper in the order in which they occm*. An at- 
tempt to remember the tuck arrangement is almost sure to re- 
sult in confusion unless the observer is quite familiar with the 
work. 

The width of the sample in question is found, by counting, to 
be 30 wales. 

Determining the Height of the Design. — The height of the 
design is the number of courses from any point in a square to 
the corresponding point in the next square above or below. 
The starting and stopping points are sometimes not readily de- 
termined, since counting in the figured portion is confusing. 
To overcome this difficulty, it is sometimes permissible to cut 
from one side of the pattern a narrow strip of fabric, say five or 
six wales in width. Ravel this from a selected point in one 
square to the corresponding point in the next square below, 
counting the threads as they are raveled and keeping them to- 
gether for checking the count after the raveling is finished. 

The height of this design is found to be 24 courses. If the 
count had come out an odd number, it would obviously have 
been wrong, since it is known that an even number of feeds was 
used. 

Two limitations of the number of feeds are now known, 
namely, that the number is even and that the number must 
divide evenly into 24, since each feed must make its impression 
in the design as many times as there are divisions in the pattern. 



Figure Designing with Pattern Wheels 



235 



From this it is easy to make a table of the possible combinations 
of numbers of feeds and divisions of pattern, since the only 
fabric conditions are that the number of feeds be even and that 
the product of feeds and fabric divisions in the pattern be equal 
to 2 

Table 



Feeds 


Divisions 


Courses in design 


2 X 12 




4X6 




6X4 


24 


8X3 




12 X 2 




24 X 1 






This table gives all the possible combinations of feeds, from 
which selection may be made according to convenience and to 
the facilities available, since any of these combinations will 
make the design. In other words, a design may generally be 
duplicated without duplication of the 
particular equipment with which it 
was produced. But it is frequently 
desirable to know how many feeds 
were actually used to produce the 
design in question. This is learned 
for one division lap by counting the 
difference in elevation in courses of 
two adjoining designs, as is seen by 
reference to Illustrations 36 and 39. 
Raveling from the top of one square to the top of the corre- 
sponding one in the next design shows a difference of 4 courses, 
consequently, four feeds were used to make the sample in ques- 
tion. Of course, if the pattern lap is more than one section, 
then the difference in the height of two adjoining designs would 
be a multiple of the number of feeds as in Illustrations 37 and 
38, but that case is not the usual one so it is not considered 
here. 

The Structure and Dimensions of the Figures. — The next 
step is the determination of the dimensions and structure of the 
figures. The raveling so far has shown that only single tucks 
are used, both vertically and horizontally, and that these are 



Illustration 42. 



Diagram of the design 
shown in Illustration 41. 



236 The Science of Knitting 

arranged diagonally with respect to each other. Moreover, 
close inspection, taken in consideration with the symmetrical 
arrangement of the figures and some stitch comiting, shows the 
design to be as in Illustration 42, 

Knitting Motion. — Since the direction of motion is not in- 
dicated by the sample, this also may be a matter of choice just 
as the number of feeds, if the inversion of the figure as in Illus- 
tration 26 compared with 24 is not objectionable. Table 1, 
on page 204, classifying machines by fabric motion facilitates 
adapting the motion to any particular type of machine. Sup- 
pose that the third type from the top of the table is selected, 
since this is a representative American type. Then, as the 
table shows, the fabric motion is right-hand. Consequently, the 
design illustrated in the sketch is to be produced in the fabric 
by motion toward the right. 

Table 2, on page 235, of feeds and corresponding pattern sec- 
tions shows a practical range of 4, 6 or 8 feeds, but inasmuch as 
the sample was apparently made with 4 feeds, the discussion may 
well be carried out with that number. Then according to the 
table, the number of divisions in the pattern must be six, which 
is also the number of divisions in the diagram. 

Direction of Lap. — The next consideration is whether the 
lap is to be over or under. Evidently, if the pattern overlaps, 
the number of cylinder needles is one division less than a whole 
number of patterns, and if the pattern underlaps, the number 
of cylinder needles is one division over a whole number of pat- 
terns. That is, if the lap is under, the remainder is over, and 
vice versa. If this is not perfectly clear, one can make it so by 
forming a closed circle of a paper pattern with end margins, 
and then underlapping or overlapping the ends of the pattern. 
The sample was evidently made with underlap, so the needle 
remainder was one division over an integral number of 
patterns. 

The following table gives the numbers of cylinder needles 
for producing this design with either overlap or underlap. The 
second number of the bracketed pair is for underlap and should 
be used for strict duplication of the design. 

Referring to the diagram of the design. Illustration 42, and 
remembering that the motion of knitting is right-hand, the 
observer sees that the lower right corner of the design will be 
knit first. The rule is: The divisions of the pattern arrange 



Figure Designing with Pattern Wheels 



237 





Table 


3 




(1) 


(2) 


(3) 


(4) 


Number of 


Number of pat- 
terns multiplied by 
the number of 


Number of 
divisions in 


Number of 
needles in 


patterns 


divisions in one 
pattern 
(1) X6 


cylinder, 

(2)±1 


cylinder, 
(3) X 30 








1 


30 


1 


» \ 


5 

7 


150 
210 


2 


n 1 


11 
13 


330 
390 


3 


>s { 


17 
19 


510 
570 


4 


- 1 


23 
25 


690 
750 


5 


30 { 


29 
31 


, 870 
930 


6 


36 { 


35 
37 


1050 
1110 



themselves vertically with the front ( , , ) when the 

\ flown ward/ 

needles in the cylinder are one division ( ) a whole number 

\ over / 

of patterns. In order to avoid confusion this rule may be stated 

in terms of the lap for this case as follows: The divisions of the 

pattern arrange themselves vertically with the front ( ^P^'^^ ] 

\ downward/ 

Therefore, for underlap 

the divisions of the pattern will repeat themselves vertically with 
the first one at the bottom. Consequently the design may be 
numbered upward on the right side, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, as it is 
showTi, according to the six equal divisions of four feeds each, ar- 
ranged in pairs with one tuck presser followed by a plain presser. 
Inversion of Figures. — It is interesting to note in this con- 
nection that when the figures are symmetrical with respect to a 
horizontal axis, it generally matters little whether the lap is 
over or under. This design has figures which are symmetrical 



1 

under J 



238 



The Science of Knitting 



with respect to a horizontal axis, that is, these figures may be 
turned upside down without changing their appearance. Change 
in the direction of the lap inverts the design and changes the 
arrangement of the duplicate designs with respect to each other, 
as a comparison of Illustrations 36 and 39 shows; but this 
change in relation of the designs is much less noticeable than 



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Illustration 43. 
Strip pattern copied from Illustration 42. 

the inversion of an unsymmetrical design, such as Illustration 
24. Consequently, many designers use figures which may be 
inverted and pay no attention to the direction of the lap, since 
by neglecting it they double the available numbers of cylinder 
needles. 

These divisions may be copied from Illustration 42 from left 
to right in the reverse of their numerical order on a strip of 
paper as shown in Illustration 43. 



Figure Designing with Pattern Wheels 239 

Proving the Pattern. — It is advisable to leave a margin at 
the top of the strip pattern, for this not only allows the num- 
bering of the divisions without confusion of the numbers with 
the tuck crosses, but it provides a margin for coiling the strip in 
order to prove the accuracy of the design and its transference 
to the strip. Table 3, page 237, shows that the design is obtain- 
able with 30 needles, so if this strip is coiled in a helix, so that 
the first needle of the pattern comes under the 31st needle, and 
so on to the end, the resulting tube will show the design just as 
it is in the diagram, provided the work has been properly done. 
It should be noted that this amounts to bringing division 2 over 
division 1, and that it is for underlap, w^hich results from a 
number of needles one division more than an integral number of 
patterns. On the contrary, if the design needs overlap, which 
results from a number of needles one division less than an integral 
number of patterns, then division 6 must be brought over division 
1 in order to prove the pattern by coiling it. This necessitates 
a much longer strip in order to show the whole design in the re- 
sulting tube. 

, After the strip pattern is proved, the next question is how to 
transfer it to the presser so that the design will not be reversed 
or inverted. 

Forming the Presser from the Pattern. — Bring the ends of 
the strip together as in Illustration 44. This represents the edge 
of a printing wheel which will make the required design, for it is 
the right length, 180 needles, and it contains all of the required 
impressions in their proper order. But this wheel would have to 
run on the back of the fabric and print through to the face in 
order to make the design just as the sketch shows it. Some 
types of machine have the pressers placed so that this analogy 
holds. In this type the fabric runs downward, faces outward, 
revolves anti-clockwise and has the presser inside of the needle 
line. Consequently, for this type of machine Illustration 44 
show^s just how the pattern is to be put on the pressers, of which 
there are two, the first for the lower line of tucks and the 
second for the upper line of tucks. The first is to make the 
lowest course in the design; moreover the relative position of 
the pressers with respect to the needles which they press is to be 
just as it is shown in the strip pattern. 

However, the most used types of machine are not like the 
type just described, for not the front but the back of the presser 



240 



The Science of Knitting 




Illustration 44. 

Model presser formed from the pattern in Illustration 43 for duplication of 

the design in Illustration 41 for right-hand motion of fabric 

and front side of presser acting. 




Illustration 45. 

The same pattern as that in Illustration 44, but adapted by reversal 
to type 7 machine, Table 1, page 205. 



Figure Designing with Pattern Wheels 241 

operates to make the design. How can the pattern be adapted 
to them without the mistake of turning it end for end, or up- 
side down? 

Adapting the Pattern to Different Presser Positions. — Illus- 
tration 45 shows the strip pattern with its ends joined to form a 
circle, except that this time the strip is inside out. It is still 
right side up as it was at first. The pattern has been traced 
through on the back with the strip held against a window pane 
and the tuck crosses duplicated with a pencil on the back. The 
observer sees now by regarding the inside of the strip, that 
if this presser operates with the back side moving toward the 
right, the effect in the fabric will be just the same as before 
when the strip was right side out and the front side acted toward 
the right. Consequently, the pencil markings on the outside of 
the circular strip show how the pattern should be put on the 
presser when the back side operates on the needles. 

As it was explained, there are two pressers, the pattern for 
each is on its respective tuck line, and the lower one knits first. 

The circumference called for by the paper strip is 180 needles, 
but it may be 360, or any other multiple of 180, provided the 
pattern is duplicated all around the edge of the presser. 

Suppose that the number of needles in the available cylinder- 
is 957. This number is not suitable for a design 30 needles in 
width, since it is not in Table 3, page 237. Consequently, it is 
necessary to find what widths are possible with this number of 
cylinder needles, in order to modify the design to correspond to 
957 needles and still to use four feeds. 

To begin with, the width of the design must divide into the 
cylinder needles, so it is necessary to find what numbers will 
divide 957. This is simply factoring, which may be set down 
as follows: 

3957 

111319 

29 

Evidently, 3, 11, 29, 33 (3 X 11) and 87 (3 X 29) are the low 
numbers which will divide 957, and the two numbers nearest 
to 30, the width of the sample, are 29 and 33. 

Try 29, since it is the nearer to 30 — so near that if it is usable, 
the design may be adapted to it by the omission of one wale 
from the field between the two squares. 

The way to try the number is to see if its pattern divisions are 



242 The Science of Knitting 

suitable. Six would be preferable, since the height of the design 
should be left as it is, if the width is not to be changed more than 
one needle, which is practically no change so far as appearance 
is concerned. 

The width 29 is contained in 957 thirty-three times; that is, 
the number of cylinder divisions is 33. But the pattern itself 
must divide into the needles with a remainder of one division 
over or under, so to find the possible pattern lengths, factor 
32 and 34 = (33 ± 1). 

2 
2 

2 

2 



Evidently, 2, 4, 8, 16, 17 are available factors, and the nearest 
number of divisions for the pattern is 8, which multiplied by 
the number of feeds, 4, equals 32 instead of the 24 courses 
desired. The field could be made higher by eight courses, but 
the squares could not be enlarged proportionately, since the 
design has been narrowed by one needle. Consequently, this 
solution is not so satisfactory as it should be. 

Generally Advisable to Reduce the Extent of the Design. — 
However, the 33-needle design width is still available for in- 
vestigation, since the sample design might be widened so much 
without objection. This width divides into 957 twenty-nine 
times, so 29 is the number of cylinder divisions. The pattern 
must divide into one more or one less divisions, so factor 28 and 
30 equal to (29 =b 1) to find the possible pattern divisions 



32 


2|34 


16 


17 


8 




4 




2 





2 


28 


2 


30 


2 


14 


3 


15 




7 




5 



Evidently, the number of pattern divisions may be 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 
7. This is a happy solution, for the height of the design may be 
left as it is by the use of 6 divisions in the pattern, or may be 
increased by four courses to correspond roughly to the increase 
in width due to the use of 33 needles instead of 30. As far as the 
appearance of the design is concerned it will probably be satis- 
factory to use the original number of divisions in the pattern, 
namely, 6. However, there are practical considerations which 



Figure Designing with Pattern Wheels 243 

sometimes make it advisable to reduce the design whenever 
modification is necessary. One consideration is that it is fre- 
quently desirable to recut the original pressers, which may be 
done if the length of the pattern is reduced, for the old cuts may 
be turned off and the new ones may then be made on the same 
pressers. This is especially desirable where the mill is isolated 
from the knitting machine shop, or when it is inconvenient to 
wait to get the pressers recut to order. 

Adapting a Design to a Range of Cylinder Sizes. — So far the 
discussion has been carried on principally with one machine in 
view. But designs for underwear should be adaptable to the 
range of sizes used in underwear manufacture, including the 
sizes from which sleeves and drawers are cut, since all parts of 
the suit should match. This involves making one design adapt- 
able to different numbers of feeds as well as to different numbers 
of needles, since the numbers of feeds decrease, as well as the 
numbers of needles, with decrease in the diameter of the machine. 
However, the feeds do not change by rule, whereas the needles 
do. Knowledge of the particular machine in question is gen- 
erally required in order to plan for the numbers of feeds. But 
evidently the numbers of needles should change according to 
the difference in the diameters of the machines. 

Difference in Standards. — An inch difference in diameter 
corresponds to 3.14 inches difference in circumference. Ac- 
cordingly, if the machines are 10 cut, the difference between 
sizes is 31 or 32 needles. Moreover, since the diameters are 
generally even inches, the numbers of needles in the cylinders 
should be multiples of 31.4; that is, a one-inch cylinder should 
have 31 or 32 needles; a two-inch machine should have 62, 63 
or 64 needles, etc. Consequently, for 10 cut, as a general rule, 
31 or 32 might be adopted as a convenient design width. There 
are local qualifications to be looked for, such as difference be- 
tween the nominal diameter and the actual diameter. For in- 
stance, in America two types of spring-needle loop- wheel machines 
<are made with the nominal diameter of the machine the same as 
the actual diameter of the needle line, whereas another type has 
the needle line diameter approximately half an inch greater. 
Furthermore, one of the types in which the nominal and actual 
diameter agree has about one and one-half per cent less needles 
per inch than the nominal gauge. While it is not to be expected 
that the knitter should learn all these differences, and much 



244 The Science of Knitting 

less to be expected that he should remember them, still it is 
highly important to remember that such differences do exist, 
in order to learn the particular ones involved and to allow for 
them in a design for a range of sizes. 

Cutting Cylinders in View of Pattern Work. — Manufacturers 
who have made pattern work in the past and contemplate mak- 
ing it in the future generally ascertain from the knitting machine 
maker what the difference is in needles between the cylinder 
sizes, and then have this difference or an average of it adopted 
as a divisor of all the cylinders. In order to do this, the cylinder 
diameters may have to be changed slightly so as to keep the cut 
standard. 

So far, the discussion has involved comparatively long pat- 
terns and the use of plain pressers to clear the tucks, since the 
principles of designing are more readily explained under those 
conditions. 

But much pattern work is done with short patterns and all 
tuck pressers. These conditions do not change the principles, 
but they require some attention which is not required with 
plain pressers. 

Self-clearing Pressers. — Consider a knitting machine which 
has 100 needles and 1 feed with a plain presser just the diam- 
eter of the machine. This machine will make plain fabric. Put 
100 slight notches — prints, they are called — equally spaced 
around the presser. Then the machine will still make plain 
fabric, but the presser will make one complete revolution every 
time the cylinder does. If it did not contain the prints it 
would slip back like a belt on a driving pulley. Now cut every 
second print deeper, so that it will not touch its corresponding 
needle. The machine will begin to make one-and-one tuck, or 
properly, tuck-one-knit-one fabric. But the tuck loops will con- 
tinue to accumulate on every other needle, for they cannot 
be cleared, since the same deep cut comes opposite the same 
needle every time. However, if it could be arranged so that the 
loop on any needle would be tucked in one course and cleared 
in the next course, then the machine would work satisfactorily. 
Evidently, this would be accomplished if the needle which is 
visited by a cut in one course be visited by a print in the next 
course; and the way to accomplish this is to arrange that the 
presser will gain or lose one needle in each revolution of the 
cylinder, which might be done in two ways, either by changing 



Figure Designing with Pattern Wheels 245 

the number of cylinder needles by one, or by changing the num- 
ber of presser prmts by one. 

Con^der changing the number of cylinder needles by adding 
one Then the presser will fall back by one needle at each 
revolution so at each succeeding course the needles which were 
tucked will be pressed, which was the condition required for 
successful operation of the machine. Evidently, the tucks will 
fall in diagonal lines, the lower ends of which will point back 
from the direction of knitting motion, as already explained If 
a needle had been taken out, the lower end of the diagonal 
would point in the direction of knitting motion 

Improper Pressers. - Now, consider leaving 100 needles in 
the cylinder as at first and changing the number of needles in 
the presser by taking out one. This will leave 99 needles in the 
presser, which is an odd number, but the length of the pattern 
IS two needles which is an even number, and since the presser 
must contam a whole number of patterns, the change cannot 
be made without violation of both the rule and the pattern 
But suppose they are violated. What will happen? As to the 
presser, either one cut or one print has been omitted. If a cut 
has been omitted, two prints come alongside; and if a print ha^ 
been omitted, two cuts come alongside. This causes somewhere - 
among the smgle-tuck diagonals a stripe two plain stitches in 
width, or a stripe two tucks in width accordmg to whether two 
prints come together or two cuts. One such diagonal in the 
whole circumference of the presser might not be objectionable, 
so this trick IS frequently useful. It is not restricted to one^ 
and-one work, but may be used with more extensive patterns 
However, it is sometimes deceptive unless carefully used This 
may be illustrated as follows. 

Clearing by Changing the Needles. - Start with the original 
tuck arrangement, namely, a one-feed 100-needle machine with 
a one-and-one tuck presser 100 needles around. This is inoper- 
ative because it will not clear the tucks. Make the needles in 
the cylinder odd, say 99 or 101 . Then the tucks will be cleared, 
and the machine will operate. Now, make the number of needles 
in the cyhnder any other odd number, 201 or 355 or 931 The 
machine will still operate. Of course, any even number of needles 
would make the machine inoperative as with the original 100 

Ceanng by Changing the Presser. - On the other hand, 
start with the 100-needle one-feed machine with a one-and-one 



246 



The Science of Knitting 



tuck presser 100 needles in circumference, and consider changing 
the size of the presser as it has been explained, and using larger 
cylinders also. It was seen that the presser might be reduced 
by a print or a cut and that the machine would be operative, 
with a slight defect in the design. Now, suppose that the num- 
ber of cylinder needles is increased to, say, 200. The number of 
needles in the presser divides into 200 with a remainder of 2, 
consequently, the tuck stitches would not be cleared, and the 
machine would load up. A moment's reflection will show the 
limitations of this method of using an odd number of cuts in a 
presser with an even pattern. The object of the method is to 
get a lap of one needle when the number of needles is even. But 
if the presser laps an even number of needles for one cylinder 
revolution, then it acts just like a single presser so many times 
bigger with an even number of cuts, consequently, the needles 
will load up, since the same needles will be pressed all the time. 
Several Self-clearing Pressors. — It has just been shown that 
with a single feed and a tuck presser, the latter must clear its 
own tucks by pressing the needles which were skipped in the pre- 
ceding course. But in a two-feed machine with two tuck pressors, 

evidently, one presser may clear 
the single tucks of the other, 
or each may clear its own loop, 
held over two courses. The fol- 
lowing will make this clear. 
Since there are two feeds, the 
opportunity to lap comes only 
at every second course, as it is 
shown by the analogy of the 
printing wheel, in which all the 
pressors act as one single wheel. 
Now, entirely regardless of 
the lap these two pressors may 
be arranged in two ways with 
respect to each other; so that 
one clears the tucks of the other; 
or so that both tuck on the same needles. If one clears the tucks 
of the other, then the machine will operate regardless of the 
number of needles in the cylinder, because one presser takes 
care of the other; but if the second pressor adds tucks where 
the first made them, then the clearing of those tucks must be 




Illustration 46. 

Diagram of one-and-one double tuck 
diagonals made with two tuck 
pressers which clear their tucks by 
lap instead of clearing them by a 
plain presser. 



Figure Designing with Pattern Wheels 



247 



done with lap, which will make both pressers step ahead or 
back by an equal amount. It is advisable to get this principle 
firmly fixed, because it is applicable for as many feeds as the 
number of tucks allowable on one needle, say 6. Illustration 
46 shows a diagram for a machine having two feeds, each with 
a one-and-one tuck presser, and arranged to tuck the same 
needles and then lap one needle at the second course in order to 
clear the double tucks. 

70 needles 

47 

80 needles 




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Illustrations 47, 48, 49, and 50. 
Exception to the general rule for patterns. Pattern A calls for a 70-needIe 
presser according to the rule, but the design may also be made with B, 
which is a 35-needle presser. 

Another arrangement which is frequently used is a modi- 
fication of the one in which every second feed is plain, but in- 
stead of making every second feed plain, every third feedj say, 
is made plain, or possibly one feed of the whole lot. This feed 
clears all tucks which are not cleared ahead of it. 

An Exception to the Rule for Pattern Lap. — After learnmg a 
rule one of the next important things to learn is the exceptions 
to it, since rarely is a rule so complete as to cover every case to 
which it is supposed to apply. 



248 



The Science of Knitting 



The rule that the number of needles in the cylinder must be a 
multiple of the number of needles in the pattern plus or minus 
one division of the pattern has exceptions which are likely to be 
puzzling when encountered unexpectedly, as the following case 
shows. 

Illustration 47 is a design in which the inverted triangles are 
10 needles apart, and which is apparently made with pattern 
divisions of 10 needles each. This design does not lend itself to 
analysis by the quadrangular method. If the sample is suffi- 
ciently wide to include 70 needles the pattern may be copied from 
the courses and will be found like that at A in Illustration 47. 
This pattern is suggestive of something exceptional to the rule. 



^ L ^ _ IL - - -- -- - ■■ -j- 


15^1116 1 li lie 1 




1 IT II III 1 1 




1 II2JIII I''- II II 




II 1 1 |3 1 11 11 1 




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II II 161 1^ II III' 




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51 
Illustration. 

Disposition of the elements of the 70-needle strip pattern A (above Illustra- 
tion 47) when used with a 60-needle cylinder. The 35-needIe atrip pattern B 
(above Illustration 50) would make sections 1, 2, and 3, after which it would 
repeat them. 

since it fills the condition for two patterns, namely repetition of 
the same characteristics; also the tucks are arranged in two 
groups of 1, 2, 3 each and the separation in the groups is 
10 needles whereas between the groups it is 15 needles. To sum 
up, although the design seems to call for a shorter pattern than 
that shown, namely 70 needles, still there is no way to use a 
shorter pattern and to comply with the rule that the lap of the 
pattern shall be one pattern division, namely 10 needles. 

In fact the rule applies because the design may be reproduced 
with pattern A on a cylinder with 80 needles, as shown in Illus- 
tration 47, or with 60. needles, as shown in Illustration 49, in 
which case, however, the triangle is no longer inverted, which 
is to be expected, for it vv^as shown that reversal of the direction 
of lap inverts the figure about a horizontal axis in its plane. 
However, conformity to the rule is not proof that a shorter pat- 
tern is not usable. 



Economics of Knitting 249 

In an actual case like this it was found that a 70-needle presser 
was too large for use, which indicated that a smaller presser had 
been used in making the sample. Accordingly the pattern was 
divided as B shows, and was found to meet the requirements of 
the design as Illustrations 48 and 50 show, although pattern B 
does not meet the requirements of the rule. 

If the six divisions of pattern A are numbered 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 
and the divisions in the design are identified by these numbers, 
the boundary of the design will be found to be a ten-sided figure 
as Illustration 51 shows. When pattern B is used the boundary 
is a six-sided figure containing the divisions 1, 2, 3. 

ECONOMICS OF KNITTING 

The highest economy consists in the conversion of yarn into 
fabric at the lowest cost. Defects and waste must, of course, 
be included in the cost. Therefore, the subject embraces the 
factors which affect the cost of knitting. 

A rough primary division of these considerations may be 
made as follows: 

The space (including power). 

The machine. 

The yarn. 

The operator. 
Space. — The space cost can be affected but httle except by 
change in the rate of production. If the rate is doubled without 
increase in the space, the space cost, per pound of fabric, say, is 
halved. Extra power will be required, but the increase in space 
cost due to increase in power cost is generally negligible. On 
the other hand, the characteristics of the space have much to 
do with the cost of knitting, since the efficiency of the machine 
is largely dependent on the physical and mental condition of 
the operator, which in turn is dependent not only on the light, 
temperature, ventilation, etc., of the surroundings, but on the 
character of the supervision, A hydro-extractor may be placed 
in a dismal corner since it is safe even if the operator has de- 
fective sight or is sickly or is resentful. But a knitting machine 
has so many fine parts and adjustments that neglect or injury, 
whether caused by inability to see clearly or by carelessness or 
by enmity, will ultimately ruin the machine and will injure much 
fabric in the meantime. 



250 The Science of Knitting 

Machine. — The machine considerations are of a different 
nature than the space considerations, except, of course, that in- 
terest .on the cost of the machine is constant, so that the ma- 
chine interest cost per pound of fabric is reduced by increase in 
the production just as the space interest cost is. But increased 
production generally involves increased wear and tear on the 
machine, which increases the cost for maintenance, repair and 
depreciation, whereas space increase does not. 

There are three ways to treat the machinery. 

1. To hold back production to preserve the machinery. 

2. To increase the profits by rapidly wearing out the machinery. 

3. To run the machinery at the maximum earning capacity 
and to put aside enough of the earnings to replace the machinery 
when it becomes inefficient. 

The first way is the old one, exemplified by the remark " This 
machine has been in constant use for thirty years and is just as 
good as new." 

The second way is typical of American knitting practice. It 
requires ultimate increase of capital for new machinery or the 
use of worn-out machinery at a loss, either of which courses 
increases the mill's burden and so leads to dissolution. 

The third course is apparently the right one. It enables the 
mill to make a good profit and to keep its equipment modern, so 
that it has the advantage over new competition of an estab- 
lished business and no disadvantages; whereas under the other 
methods, while the old mill has the advantage of establishment, 
it is handicapped by antiquated machinery or by extra interest 
charges. 

It will be considered then that the machine is a means to an 
end and that it should be used up judiciously, provided that out 
of its extra earnings enough is saved to replace it with a more 
modern one and that it is so replaced. 

Yam. — The next consideration is the yarn. It may be cut 
or torn, and turned into waste, or it may be knit with imperfec- 
tions which reduce the value of the fabric. This reduction in 
value should be charged to the cost of manufacture, just as 
is charged the shrinkage in value from yarn to waste. With 
some knitting machinery there is a choice whether to use thread 
stop motions, and frequently there is a question between re- 
winding and not. But for most rib knitting, thread stop motions 
are necessary, and since the pros and cons of rewinding are 



Economics of Knitting 251 

quite well understood, it is considered that stop motions are used 
and that the yarn is to be knit as supplied, either on cones 
or bobbins as the case may be. Summarized in regard to the 
yarn the main considerations are to keep down the waste and 
to keep up the quality of the fabric. 

Operator. — The operator is the most important factor and 
the most difficult one to control. Not only is his labor a cost 
Item, but he influences almost every other cost, e.g., fixed cost 
by affecting the rate of production, machinery cost by the care 
given the machine, and yarn cost both by the attention to the 
operation of the machine and by the result of the adjustment of 
the machine. Of course, the cost for operation is reduced by 
increase in the production per operator. 

The question how to get the best results from the operator is 
too voluminous for extensive treatment here, but a few impor- 
tant considerations may be mentioned. The operator is better 
led than driven. Preferably, he should be led by induceibents 
to drive himself. There are three good reasons for not driving 
him. In the first place, he is generally of sufficient intelligence 
to appreciate reasonable treatment; in the second place, it is 
difficult to tell that he is not doing his best, and in the third 
place, he has so much of his employer's property within his ^ 
control that he is much more independent than help usually is. 
There is probably no department of the knitl^g mill which 
gives better returns for good surroundings and good treatment 
than the knitting room, and there is only one department which 
gives better opportunity for resentment — that is the dye room. 
From the foregoing it is seen that economy consists in increas- 
ing production to that point where the income exceeds to the 
greatest extent the out-go. It should not be understood from 
this that a mill running cotton can change to wool at an in- 
creased production or at the old production, for the rate of pro- 
duction should always depend on the conditions. But for any 
given set of conditions the tendency is to increase. Change of 
yarn or of management or of style of goods may make a sudden 
decrease, but as soon as conditions become stable, increase 
should occur; the machinery is built for it, the mill is remodeled 
for it, survival requires it. 

The difference between the total income and out-go is made up 
of numerous factors. What are they? and can they be changed 
to advantage? 



252 The Science of Knitting 

The production of a rib knitting machine in pounds for 7.5 
hours actual time is equal to 

dia. in inches X feeds X r.p.m. X cyl. needles per inch (cut) ] 
I yarn X cyl. stitches per foot of yarn 
Seven and one-half hours time and needles per inch (or cut) 
are taken in order to eliminate the constants, and to leave in the 
equation only the variables which determine the production. 
Evidently, an increase in any of the factors above the line in- 
creases the production, but an increase in either of the factors 
below the line decreases the production, and vice versa. This 
formula answers the question, what are the mechanical factors 
which affect production. Whether they can be changed to ad- 
vantage may be concluded after considering what results will 
be caused by a change in any one of them. The formula should 
be kept in mind during the consideration of the subject. 

Diameter of Machine 

Increase in the diameter without decrease in the speed is the 
same as increase in the needle velocity; but as it is much easier 
to get this by increase in the speed, it is generally so done, es- 
pecially since the diameter of the machine is generally restricted 
by the width of the fabric. But where there is no such re- 
striction, as sometimes is the case in knitting piece goods, and 
where the needle velocity is not at its limit, increase of diameter 
not only increases the production, but provides space for ad- 
ditional feeds with which a still further increase may be made. 
The effects of increased needle velocity are discussed under 
Revolutions per Minute. 

Revolutions per Minute, or Speed 

This factor as a means of increase in production is the one 
most commonly considered and very generally misunderstood. 
Anyone who is familiar with knitting and visits knitting mills is 
struck with the frequency with which he is asked to tell the 
proprietor how fast he ought to run his machines, often without 
even seeing the knitting room. This question can be answered 
reliably only after consideration of the conditions. 

The whole subject is analogous to an important feature of the 
speed question in railroading, i.e., to keep the gain due to accel- 
erated speed more than the increase in losses due to increased 



Economics of Knitting 253 

accidents and increased trouble resulting therefrom. If a ma- 
chine doubles its speed, it requires four times the force to stop 
it in a given distance; or, if the same stopping force is used, the 
machine will run farther, and will cause extra damage to itself 
and to the fabric if it is deranged. Fortunately, in this respect, 
reciprocating needle machinery — to which class most rib ma- 
chinery belongs — has a considerable friction load which acts 
as a constant brake so that it stops quicker than purely rotary 
machinery. The many considerations which enter into this 
question may be classified as follows: 

1. Winding. 

2. Yarn, as to material, kind, perfection, size. 

3. Stitch, whether tight or loose. 

4. Machine, as to equipment, repair and adjustment. 

5. Help, as to character and ability. 

1. Winding. — There is an adage that good winding is half 
of knitting. That was formulated before thread stop motions 
were as reliable as they are at present, but the stop motion is 
much like the policeman — it does not stop all trouble — and 
the stoppage itself is a loss and a considerable one as the follow- 
ing discussion of feeds shows. Therefore, the winding should be 
good for increased speed. 

2. The yam is dragged into the machine at the rate of about 
9 feet per second against the resistance of the cone or bobbin, the 
air, and the numerous guides thi'ough which it passes. A strong, 
smooth yarn which does not bend too readily will go along 
without much trouble; but weakness — whether due to char- 
acter of fibre, size, or spinning — and stickiness — whether due 
to grease, or to wrapping close around the l^bearing surfaces — 
cause trouble, by making the yarn more subject to break- 
age and by giving it more cause to break. On the other hand, 
if a strong yarn gets caught, it may break needles before it 
parts, whereas a weak yarn would have caused less trouble un- 
der the same conditions. Woolen yarn is generally more trouble- 
some than cotton yarn. It contains grease which gums the 
guides, burs which catch and hold it on the bobbin, twits which 
pull apart readily, soft spots which load up the needles, and hnt 
which collects and binds the drop wires or runs into the ma- 
chine in wads. Short staple cotton is much the same except 
that it is stronger and does not contain the grease. Lisle yam 



254 The Science of Knitting 

is the reverse of all this, so it makes one of the best running 
yarns there is. Floss silk slides readily and has ample strength, 
but the strands sometimes sliver back, making little lumps in 
the knitting. Linen and ramie have the strength and sliding 
properties to feed readily, indeed often to come up too freely, 
several coils at a time; but they resist bending so much and 
are so uneven that they are prone to load up the needles. The 
whole subject is so complex that practical experience is needed to 
supplement the general principles. 

3. Stitch. — If the stitch is tight, the speed should be low, 
for load-ups at high speed are damaging. A loose stitch facili- 
tates high speed, 

4. Machine. — As a rule, rotary knitting machinery is strong 
enough to run at a higher rate than that which is warranted 
by the strength of the yarn and the reliability of the stopping 
devices; but if it is untrue or inaccurate, if the cams are im- 
properly designed, if the wearing surfaces are of poor material 
or improperly finished, then the machine itself limits the speed. 
Consequently, machines out of repair may not be run economi- 
cally so fast as similar machines in good repair. Also brand-new 
machines should not be run up to speed until the wearing sur- 
faces are well smoothed by use. Even if the machine itself is 
all that could be desired, it is impractical to run it fast if it is 
improperly adjusted, say, if the dial needles interfere with the 
cylinder needles, etc. 

The needles are regarded as a part of the machine, and one of 
the most important parts. If they are nicked, or worn, or in 
any way inferior, they limit the speed of the machine. 

The stopping devices should be good for increased speed, and 
should be adjusted accordingly, i.e., the sweep wires, etc., should 
be placed high, the brakes set to release quickly after the power 
is thrown off and possibly with increased pressure, etc. 

5. The help is one of the most important considerations as 
to whether increased speed is economical, since increased speed 
calls for alacrity. If the speed of the machine is increased one- 
third and the speed of the operator not at all, then run downs 
will be one-third longer and other troubles will be increased. 
Moreover, with increased speed the damage from smashes is 
almost sure to increase to an extent, and if this damage is neg- 
lected instead of quickly and properly repaired, it increases 
itself. 



Economics of Knitting 255 

Feeds 

The equation indicates that an increase in the feeds will in- 
crease the production in the same proportion, but this should not 
be inferred, since the equation does not include waste and lost 
time factors. The question of the number of feeds generally 
comes up at the time the machinery is purchased and the manu- 
facturer is usually a good advisor on that subject. He knows 
quite well how close feeds have been put and what the re- 
sults have been and it is to his interest to advise, since he w^ants 
the machines to give the best all around satisfaction. Then 
there are such considerations as possible pattern work, making 
an even number of feeds desirable. But the knitter should 
know what the truly economical considerations are so that he 
may use that knowledge in conjunction with what has already 
been mentioned to adapt the number of feeds to his particular 
requirements. Some of the off-sets to the gain by increase in 
the number of feeds are as follows: 

1. The lost time due to ends running into the, stop motion, or 
on into the needles is increased in proportion to the number of 
feeds. Suppose for illustration that one end runs in once an 
hour at one feed and that a minute is required to restart the 
machine. If the day is ten hours long, the lost time at that 
feed is 10 minutes in 600, or 1.67 per cent. Every added feed 
adds 1.67 per cent to the lost time, since two ends do not break 
at once as a rule. At the above' rate a five-feed machine would 
lose 8.33 per cent of a day. 

2. The damage to needles and to fabric is somewhat in- 
creased, since needle protectors are not generally increased at the 
same rate as the feeds, so that a load-up or a bunch has added 
opportunity to do damage before the machine is stopped. There 
are some exceptions to this, such as that in which a needle pro- 
tector is added after a certain number of feeds so that the pro- 
tection afterward is greater than it was just before that number 
was reached. 

Needles per Inch, i.e., the Cut 

Change in the cut of the machine changes the production in 
the ratio of the cuts, i.e., a change from 8 to 9 cut changes the 
production as 9:8 = f = 1.12|, or 12| per cent gain, provided 
always that all other conditions are maintained. Now, the yarn 
number is determined to an extent by the cut, and the stitch is 



256 The Science of Knitting 

determined similarly by the yarn number. Moreover, the weight 
of the fabric is determined by both the number of the yarn and 
the stitch. So change in the cut introduces complications. Yet 
the cut is important among the production factors, so the change; 
should be considered on its merits. 

Since it is desired to increase production, an increase in the 
cut is the proposed change. Possibly it is already too fine, 
and is making more waste than it should for the quantity and 
quality of the fabric produced; but if this is the case, it will be 
discovered during the consideration of the plan to make it finer. 

Suppose the cut is changed by one needle per inch, say, 
changed from 8 to 9, but suppose the same number of stitches 
per foot of yarn is used. As far as the fabric is concerned, this 
is equivalent to an increase in the diameter of the machine of | 
or 12| per cent. 

Therefore, 

(1) the fabric will be | wider. 

(2) the wales per inch \ 

(3) the courses per inch > will be unchanged. 

(4) the weight per square yard. J 

Notice that the stitch is kept at the same number of needles 
per foot of yarn, since it is assumed that the cut is too coarse, so 
the cut is to be conformed to the stitch instead of vice versa. 

Then, as far as the fabric is Concerned, the only change neces- 
sary is to readjust the machine sizes to the width of the fabric. 
This is readily done. The main considerations are the adapta- 
bility of the cut to the same yarn. When the cut is made finer, 
the needles are generally decreased in size and, consequently, in 
strength; moreover, the clearance for the yarn in and between 
the needles is decreased, so there is the double objection that the 
yarn is more likely to load up and that the needles are more 
readily damaged. Consequently, the advisability of change in 
the cut resolves itself into retention of the gain due to increased 
production greater than the loss due to increased needle breakage 
and consequent stoppage. Evidently, the gain due to increased 
production increases much slower than the loss due to crowd- 
ing the cut, since this involves not only lost time but damaged 
needles and damaged fabric. Therefore, the cut should not be 
made finer, unless it is evident that the original cut is coarse 
for the yarn. Whether this is so may be determined by the rules 



Economics of Knitting 257 

and tables given elsewhere, or preferably in the mill itself if 
several different cuts or different yarn numbers are used. 

Suppose the mill runs successfully under the same conditions; 

(a) 7 cut with 10 yarn, and 

(b) 10 cut with 16 yarn. 

Also suppose the question arises whether the 7-cut machine 
may advantageously be made finer. From the preceding it is 
evident that to make it finer without change in other conditions 
will increase the production, which is advantageous, but will the 
increased waste and needle breakage counterbalance it? 

Now the yarn is proportional to the square of the cut for 
similar conditions. Conversely, the cut is proportional to the 
square root of the yarn. 

cutg _ Vyarria 
^^^6 Vyarn& 



, ^ VySbTUa 

CUta = CUtb ' 

vyarru, 

CUta = 10^^= 

Vl6 



= iov/!2 

V 16 



16 

= 10 VO.625 
= 10 X 0.79 
= 7.9, say 8. 

Therefore, the 7-cut machine may be changed to 8 cut with 
the result that the new production will be to the old as 8: 7 = f = 
1.143, or 14.3 per cent gain, and with the expectancy of its 
running as well as the 10-cut machine. 

If the result had come out less than 7, it would have indi- 
cated that 7 cut was already too fine, in which case those ma- 
chines should be watched for waste, and if it were high, then 
a change to a coarser cut would be advisable, provided that the 
loss from reduced production would not be more than the gain 
from reduced waste. 

Yarn Number 

So far, only the factors of the equation above the line have 
been considered. It will be noticed that none of them affects 
the weight per square yard of the fabric. On the contrary, both 



258 The Science of Knitting 

of the factors below the Hne do affect the fabric in this regard. 
Obviously, if the yarn is made heavier, i.e., if the number is re- 
duced, the production in pounds will be increased. The ques- 
tions which arise regarding such a change are similar to those 
regarding increase in the cut, except that weight, as well as size, 
readjustment must be considered. If increased weight per yard 
is not permissible, then the yarn cannot be changed without a 
corresponding change in the stitch. Suppose that the fabric 
may be heavier, there will still be doubt about the advisability 
of making it so, for if the goods are sold by the dozen and no 
advance in price is obtained for more weight, it would be foolish 
to give away some extra weight per dozen just to reduce the 
knitting cost per pound. But for the sake of argument it may 
be assumed that heavier weight goods may be marketed at 
sufficient advance to pay for the extra weight per square yard, as 
may be the case when the fabric is sold in the roll. Then, of 
course, whatever reduction may be made in the cost per pound 
of knitting is gain. So the disadvantages of decreasing the 
yarn number should be considered, and if they do not out- 
weigh the advantages, the change should be made. 

Since the yarn is proportional to the square of the cut, the 
yarn to be used may be determined just as the cut was de- 
termined. For simplicity, the same conditions are assumed as 
when the cut was considered, except that now the correct yarn 
number is desired instead of the correct cut. The mill is sup- 
posed to be running successfully under similar conditions: 

(a) 7 cut with 10 yarn, and 

(6) 10 cut with 16 yarn. 

The question is whether coarser yarn may be used on 7 cut 
and, if so, what number will correspond to 16 yarn on 10 cut. 

yaruq ^ cutg- 
yarub cutb^ * 

cut 2 
yarua = yaruft X -^ 

CUtft^ 
4Q 

= 1^^x10 

= 7.84, say 8. 



Economics of Knitting 259 

This will change the production as 1/8 : 1/10, or as Y = 1-25, 
i.e., 25 per cent gain. 

It will increase the weight per yard in the same proportion. 

The width of the fabric will be changed inversely as the square 
roots of the yarn numbers, i.e., as 

1 1 VTo /- — 

The courses per inch will be increased to the same extent. 

Stitches 

The last means to increase the production is to lengthen the 
stitch, i.e., to decrease the stitches in one foot of yarn. This 
makes the fabric lighter, since the courses per inch decrease 
more rapidly than the stitches do. 

Suppose that the cut is 7 and that the stitches per foot of 
yarn are 28. A change to 25 stitches per foot changes the 

A ^- 1 1 28 

production ^s^^ : 23 = 25 "" ' °^* ^^ P^^ ^^^* Sain. 

The width of the fabric is not changed. 
- The running of the machine is generally benefited, since a 
loose stitch favors good running. Of course, if the fabric is 
made unstable by loosening the stitch, then this means of in-~ 
creasing the production is not permissible. 

Conclusion 

It should be evident from the f oregomg that economical com- 
bmations of all of the conditions mentioned are not likely to 
happen. Indeed it is singular that the combinations which do 
happen are sufficiently economical to be profitable. But if 
profit can be made by unscientific methods, then careful in- 
vestigation ought to pay a good return. 

One of the first things to do is to calculate the theoretical pro- 
duction of each machine. The production tables and rules 
aheady given afford facihties for such calculations according 
to whatever conditions have to be met. In general, however, a 
convenient rule is: 

Production, in pounds per day of ten hours, equals 

d ia. in inches X r.p.m. X feeds X cylinder needles per inch (cut) 
1.333 X cotton number of yarn X stitches per foot of yarn 



260 The Science of Knitting 

Now for each machine everything in this equation is generally- 
constant except the yarn nifmber. Substitute in the equation 
everything except the yarn number, thereby getting a constant 
which divided by the yarn number at any time that it is con- 
venient gives the production of that machine without the trouble 
which the whole calculation would involve. For instance, sup- 
pose the mill contains among others a machine of the follow- 
ing details, dia. 18 inches; r.p.m., 52; feeds, 12; cut, 8; stitches 
per foot of yarn, 30. The first four numbers multiplied to- 
gether give 898,560, which divided by 30 X 1.333 (= 40) gives 
2246.4, the number which divided by the cotton yarn number 
gives the production for ten hours continuous running. Con- 
sequently, if No. 10 yarn is used, the theoretical production is 
224.6 lbs. The actual production may be compared with this 
to obtain the lost time. If the actual production is 180 lbs., 

44 6 
the hours lost were 10 X ^^ . ^ = 2 nearly. It is not right to 

charge all of this lost time to the operator, because the machine 
must stop for ends, as a preceding explanation shows. Just 
what this stoppage is, should be determined by actual count of 
the stops on one machine, especially if the production drops 
down. Suppose this twelve-feed machine stops for ends six 
times an hour. Assume that the operator averages one minute 
lost time in getting the machine in operation. Then the machine 
is stopped sixty minutes of the day, or 10 per cent. Since there 
are 12 ends, the stoppage chargeable to an end is 10 -^ 12 = 
0.833 per cent. Therefore, a ten-feed machine will lose 8.33 per 
cent. Consequently, it would be unfair to expect a man operating 
machines with 10 feeds to obtain twice the production of one 
operating an equal number of 5-feed machines. To keep track 
of the production in this way is to do very much to keep it up; 
for if the operator knows that his lost time is checked, he will 
be careful to get to the machines quickly to restart them. If 
two machines are stopped at a time he will start first the one 
with the most feeds; and if the yarn comes bad, he will report it 
quickly rather than accept unjust blame. Moreover, observa- 
tions of this kind afford a reliable foundation for a merit system 
of remuneration which will be quickly satisfactory to all con- 
cerned, instead of one which will necessitate a probationary 
period of readjustment with consequent discouragement and dis- 
satisfaction. 



Economics of Knitting 261 

Change of Yarn with Corresponding Change of Stitch 

One of the commonest considerations is that of the adapta- 
bihty of the yarn for the cut. This is discussed in the preceding 
pages for stitch constant, but not for change of stitch, which 
however is the most frequent combination in which it is met. 
For instance, a manufacturer buys at bargain price some sHghtly 
used machines which are one or two needles per inch coarser 
than he is using. After he has had them for a time he wonders 
if they are as much of a bargain as they had seemed as far as 
production in pounds is concerned. How is he to satisfy him- 
self? This can be done by analysis of the question or by mathe- 
matics. The analysis is as follows: 

Since the cut is coarse for the yarn, the question is the same 
as that in which the yarn is fine for the cut, so the latter should 
be considered, since it is simpler. Suppose that a certain cut 
with a certain yarn gives the highest knitting economy. Now 
suppose that finer yarn is used. What is the result as 'far as 
production is concerned? Since the yarn is finer, the production 
(without change of stitch) is changed in inverse proportion to 
the yarn number. That is, if the change is from No. 10 to 
No. 20, the production is changed to one-half of what it for- 
merly was, according to the explanation given elsewhere in the^ 
book. But fabric made under such conditions would be sleazy, 
and so probably unsalable. Consequently, the stitches per foot 
must be increased in order to make satisfactory fabric. Now it 
has already been shown that it is customary to increase the 
stitches per foot just as the diameter of the yarn is decreased. 
But if the stitches per- foot are increased, then the length of 
yarn fed in a given time is proportionately less, consequently, 
the production is still further decreased. Just how much the 
two changes affect the production is best shown mathematically. 

The production of a rib knitting machine for 7.5 hours is 
equal to 

dia. in inches X feeds X r.p.m. X cut 

number of yarn X cylinder stitches per foot of yarn * 
No quantity above the line is to be changed, but both quanti- 
ties below the line are to be increased, therefore, the relative 
production before and after the change is represented by the 
expression 

1 



No. X stitches 



262 



The Science of Knitting 



But the stitches are proportional to the VNo. as reference to 
the rules for regular fabrics shows. Consequently, the produc- 
tion is proportional to 

1 

No. X VNa " 

But this is a rather inconvenient form for the practical man. 
It is made more understandable and usable by a reduction to 

terms of the yarn diameter. The No. is proportional to — 

dia.2 

and the VNo. is proportional to ^r~ . Therefore, the pro- 
duction is proportional to dia.^ Take the illustration already 
given of the change from No. 10 yarn to No. 20. Their 
respective diameters and cubes are shown in the following 
table. 



Number 


Diameter 


Diameter^ 


10 
20 


15.06 
10.65 


342 
121 



(The decimal points have been moved to corresponding con- 
venient places in order to avoid confusion in pointing-off, which 
is permissible, since only relative values are desired, instead of 
absolute values.) It is evident that the production with No. 10 
yarn is nearly three times that with No. 20 yarn. Of course, 
the supposed change of yarn is greater. than any which is apt 
to occur in practice, but the prmciple is true regardless of the 
extent of the change. Accordingly, it is advisable to consider 
before the use of yarn too fine for the cut, or what is the same 
thing, cut too coarse for the yarn, for such use very seriously 
reduces the production. This reduction, by increasing the pro- 
duction cost, increases the final cost, unless compensation is made 
by changes in other cost factors, such as increase in speed, reduc- 
tion in waste, etc. 

The above discussion makes clear many questions which are 
generally misunderstood. For illustration, the manufacture of 
fine flat balbriggan in America is conducted on two different 
principles: light yarn with a tight stitch, and heavy yarn with 
a loose stitch. The light-yarn-tight-stitch method gives such a 



Minimum Weight per Square Yard 263 

comparatively small production that repeated efiforts have been 
made to account for it by the speed and feeds, but the disparity 
there is insufficient without the above-mentioned difference due 
to the yarn and the stitch. 

The rate of production of machines using jack sinkers, and, 
consequently, having a relatively low needle speed, has gener- 
ally been based on the speed and feeds without considering the 
important compensation which they have in the increase of pro- 
duction due to the use of heavy yarn, which use is made possible 
by the jack sinker. 

Finally, and generally, the fact that the production in pounds 
is proportional to the cube of the diameter of the yarn is useful 
for the selection of machines for special purposes. A machine 
having loop wheels with fixed blades is especially adapted to 
knit light yarn, whereas a jack-sinker machine is especially 
fitted to knit heavy yarn. It is as uneconomical to use a 
jack-sinker machine for very light yarn as it is to use a loop- 
wheel machine for very heavy yarn, since the former cannot 
give a reasonable production and the latter will give unreason- 
able trouble. 



MINIMUM WEIGHT PER SQUARE YARD, YARN-DIAM-- 
ETER CONSTANT. — DEMONSTRATION 

Illustration 1 shows four stitches of plain knit fabric with 
four wales per inch and one course per inch, as seen with a stitch 
glass having an opening one inch by one inch. 

The following is evident: 

There are eight threads crossing the opening. 

The average distance between the threads is one yarn diam- 
eter. (This is shown by the dotted circles of the same diameter 
as the yarn and midway between the ends of the loop.) 

Now, as the courses per inch decrease, these threads will 
approach the parallel position, becoming exactly parallel when 
the courses become zero; but their distance apart will not be 
changed, since by supposition the yarn diameter is constant. 
Then a square inch of fabric will be made up* of threads an 
inch long, and the number of these threads will be equal to 
half the diameters per inch. These relations are true no 
matter what units be taken, so the weight per square yard 
will be the weight of as many threads one yard long as half 



264 



The Science of Knitting 



the number of diameters per yard. This is for plain flat 
fabric. Plain ribbed fabric is the same on the back as it is 
on the face, so it will have twice as many threads. Therefore, 
the minimum weight of ribbed fabric with a given diameter of yarn 
is the weight of as inany yards of that yarn as there are diameters 
per yard. 
Or, 



36 



Minimum weight 1 t^t • i. r 

per square yird = Weight of one ^ 

of plain rib fabric J ^^^^ ^^ ^^^^ dia. of yarn, m mches 




Illustration 1. 
Very loose stitches, flat fabric. 



What is the minimum weight in pounds per square yard of 
plain rib fabric made of No. 23 yarn? 

23X'840 ^mO = -^^^2' ^^'^^"- 



Brief Chronological List of Important Knitting Inventions 265 











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266 The Science of Knitting 

THEORY OF KNIT FABRICS 

The primary object of this book is to supply useful informa- 
tion for practical knitters. There were two courses open for 
the accomplishment of that end. One was to collect, edit and 
print tables and rules from whatever source available. The 
other course was to endeavor to find the fundamental laws of 
knitting, to derive comprehensive tables from them, and to put 
the laws in such simple form that the practical knitter would 
have available, reliable foundation knowledge of his occupation, 
which would not only increase his usefulness but would enable 
him to derive rules and "tables which would be generally useful, 
instead of being restricted to the practice of a single mill as is 
most of the present information. The latter course was se- 
lected, so the task involved not only the computation of original 
tables and the writing of what was supposed to be desirable 
explanatory matter, but the more difficult task of the discovery 
and the proof of the fundamental laws of a big industry in 
which so few were known that the industry was considered prac- 
tically lawless. Only the simplest of this research work is thus 
far included in the book since there is insufficient demand for 
the remainder to warrant its publication. This limited demand 
for theoretical matter is not the fault of the individual knitter, 
but of the industry as a whole. Even at the present time a 
good laiitting education is attained only by practical applica- 
tion so continuous that general education must be curtailed. 
One of the causes of this is the lack of technical knowledge of 
the very kind which this book is designed to supply; which lack, 
in turn, is due to the absence of exact experimental knowledge. 
Knitting, especially in America, is probably unique as an im- 
mense industry without technical literature, without experiment 
stations, without standards, and possibly not without schools, 
but certainly without scholars, for the schools have little to teach 
except that which can be obtained almost as well in prac- 
tice. They should have what cannot be obtained in practice, 
that is, the foundation principles. Engineering in all of its 
branches, astronomy, agriculture, medicine — practically all im- 
portant divisions of human endeavor — are pushed along by 
investigations, by schools, by colleges, by associations, and even 
by the government. But the knitting industry, instead of hav- 
ing all this assistance, seems to lack even the realization of 
needing it. 



Theory of Knit Fabrics 267 

In view of the above-mentioned attitude of knitters regarding 
the sUght value of theory, it was concluded not to devote any 
space to it, but this seemed unfair to the few whose attitude is 
just the reverse, and more than that it seemed unwise, since it 
would leave ground for the supposition that the theory is not 
founded in fact, whereas it is really the expression of demon- 
strated facts. So it was decided to outline the theory. How- 
ever, the explanation is made as brief as possible, and in order 
to secure brevity no attempt is made to popularize the language 
for those who are not used to elementary experimental science. 

The laws are the result of measurements of some 200 samples 
of rib fabric made in the search for the laws out of single-mule- 
spun carded cotton yarn, which measurements were interpreted 
in the light of extensive experience with flat knit fabrics and 
memorandums of that experience. It is not supposed that all 
of the laws are final. Indeed those under Case 2 are only par- 
tially determined, owing to the lack of sufficient experimental 
data to warrant definite determination; and it is likely that 
further investigation will show minor variations in some of 
those already accepted as practically final. However, no law 
has been used which did not appear to be as reliable in practice 
as the average law used as a basis of calculation in every-day 
affairs. It would be highly desirable to give the percentage of 
error in these laws. So would it be desirable, and even more so, 
to give the constants for use with wool, worsted, two-thread 
work, etc., but this data cannot be derived readily within rea- 
sonable time from private experiments. A fair idea of the varia- 
tion to be expected may be obtained from the tabulation of 
the dimensions of regular fabrics. Let any one interested com- 
pare the dimensions given, with those of a few pieces of fabric 
which meet the conditions of yarn and stitch. The proportional 
variation of the actual dimensions from the theoretical, will be 
a good criterion for the variation. 

It should be remembered that take-up pull, hygroscopic con- 
ditions, error in the yarn number or diameter, or in the stitches, 
all enter into the final error. Indeed, one cause of the lack of 
scientific investigation has undoubtedly been aversion to un- 
dertake scientific work with such unsatisfactory measures as 
are available in knitting, where no dimension, either of weight, 
diameter or length, is readily obtainable with even fair accuracy. 

The following explanation of the terms used is made to avoid 



268 The Science of Knitting 

cumbering the formulas with details which may just as well be 
understood once for all. 

Stitches are the number of cylinder needles per foot of yarn. 

Wales are the number of wales — or ribs — per inch on one 
side of the fabric. 

Coin-ses are the number of courses per inch. 

Weight is the weight in pounds of a square yard of fabric. 

Diameter is the sensible diameter of the yarn in inches — not 
the diameter obtained from the specific gravity. 

Number is the cotton number of the yarn. 

The theory is developed for normal plain rib fabrics, i.e., fabrics 
in which each and every loop in a course is tangent to the 
adjacent loops in the same course, but is not tangent to loops 
of adjoining courses; or in popular language, fabrics which are 
neither sleazy nor boardy and have properly formed loops. 

It is evident that the equations apply also to plain flat knit- 
ting, and probably to other kinds of knitting. The only differ- 
ence is in the constants. 

Case 1. — Stitches constant and yarn number variable. 
Chart 1. 

wales X courses = a constant (1) 

width = dia. X a constant (2) > from experiment. 

courses = dia. X a constant (3) 

All these are straight-line curves. No. 1 is parallel to the axis 
of diameters. The others pass through the origin, but do not 
extend to infinity, since the stitch tightens to the breaking point 
within finite limits. 

. /o\ 1 ^ constant ... 

(1) ^ (3) wales = ^^r^ (4) 

This curve is of hyperbolic form. For dia. = 0, wales = oo , 
and for dia. = oo , wales = 0, theoretically only, since this is re- 
stricted for large diameters just as are Nos. 2 and 3. 

The weight per square yard is obtained by combining these 

equations with the weight per square yard formula which is 

fully explained elsewhere in the book. No explanation is required 

here, except that this formula is not dependent on theory but on 

facts, hence it may properly be used for demonstration. This 

formula is 

. , _ wales X courses 

^ "~ 1.944 number X stitches 



Theory of Knit Fabrics 



269 



Relations of Rib-fabric Dimensions for Stitches per Foot of Yarn Constant 
(30.8) and Size of Yarn Variable. 













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Chart 1. Case 1. 

Select the yarn diameter on the left, follow its horizontal line to the right to 

the curve, and then follow the vertical line to the scale at the bottom. 
For instance, for yarn 0.010 inches in diameter: 

wales X courses = 34X 10 = 340.000 

courses = 13.700 

wales = 25.000 

width of flattened tube from 88 needles = 1.760 

weight per square yard = 24.2 -h 100 = 0.242 



270 



The Science of Knitting 



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Chart 2. Case 3. 

The diagonal is the curve of the weight per square yard multiplied by 100. 
Select the yarn diameter on the left, follow its horizontal line to the right to 

the curve, and then follow the vertical line to the scale at the bottom. 
For instance, for yarn .010 inches in diameter: 



wales 


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courses 


= 






31.30 


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= 






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weight per sq. yd. 


= 


38 - 


- 100 


0.38 



Theory of Knit Fabrics 271 

But from No. 1 for stitches constant, 

wales X courses = a constant. 
, Therefore, 
I weight X number = a constant (6) 

But from the definition of yarn number, 

number = g^T^^°^ 

Substituting this value for number in (6) 

weight = dia.2 X a constant. , (7) 

Therefore, the weight curve is a parabola with its vertex at zero 
diameter. 

Case 2. — Diameter constant and stitches variable. No 
chart, since such determinations as were made can be shown 
readily without. 

Wales = a constant except for slight increase with increase 
of stitches. 

Width = a constant except for slight decrease with increase of 
stitches. 

Courses are proportional to stitches, but not directly so. 
Weight is proportional to stitches, but not directly so. 
The forms of the course and weight curves were not definitely 
determined. The minimum weight = wt. of 1 yard of yarn 
36 
dla. ' ^^ ^® 6xplamed in the demonstration given elsewhere of 

" minimum weight per square yard." 

Case 3. — Loop proportional to diameter of yarn. Chart 2. 
This is the general case. Fabrics under it are called regular 
fabrics m this book, because the rules are worked out for it 
quite completely. For the principles see Elements of Knitting 
m this book, also an article in the " Textile Manufacturers 
Journal," March 9, 1912, entitled Science in Knitting. No 
special experimental work was done in this case, since the theory 
5vas regarded as sufficiently substantiated without it. 

wales X dia. = a constant ^g) 

courses X dia. = a constant * m) 

stitches X dia. = a constant qq) 

These curves are all of hyperbolic form, so for dia. = all = 
». Dia. =00, all = 0. ' 



272 The Science of Knitting 

The weight formula 

weight X 1.944 X number X stitches = wales X courses, 

with the above values and dia. instead of number substituted, 
becomes 

weight X ^^''^^' . X ^^''^^- - J— V ^Q^«^- V ^Q^^t- 
"^^'^^^ ^ dia.2 ^ dia. - 1.944 ^ ^diaT ^ "dkT' 

from which, 

weight = dia- X a constant (11) 

Consequently, the weight curve is a straight line passing through 
and 00 . 

(8) X ( 9) wales X courses X dia.^ = a constant. . (12) 

(10) X (10) stitches^ X dia.^ = a constant. . (13) 

no\ . /io\ wales X courses 

^^^^ ^ ^^^^ stitches^ = ^«^«*^^^- • • (14) 

THEORY OF KNIT FABRICS — GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 

Although the theory itself is rather technical for knitters as a 
rule, still the general considerations are not, and they should be 
read in order to obtain a better understanding of the results 
worked out by the theory. 

In the practical application of the rules and formulas the in- 
vestigator should consider three important questions: (1) pos- 
sibility of a misunderstanding of a principle; (2) possible errors 
due to mistakes in interpreting the experiments; (3) differences 
of opinion where opinion has to be used. In regard to No. 1, it 
is believed that no principle has been mistaken. As to No. 2, 
further investigation may show, for instance, that for stitches 
constant, the weight per square yard is not exactly inversely 
proportional to the yarn number. But even if it does so show, 
the simplicity of this rule and its practical accuracy will un- 
doubtedly keep if in use. However, this should not stand in 
the way of a more accurate rule if one is obtainable. Regarding 
No. 3, differences of opinion are bound to occur, for there is no 
accounting for tastes. But they can be reduced by an explana- 
tion of the considerations on which the opinions are based. Con- 
sequently, the following explanations are made: 

(cut^ 
yarn = — -— for rib machines, and yam = 

gauge^ \ ^ , , , . . 

— ^ — I are not supposed to be restrictive any more than to say 



Theory of Knit Fabrics — General Considerations 273 

a man walks three miles an hour is to mean that he can neither 
loiter nor run. Everybody knows to the contrary, but to en- 
able mutual understanding it is desirable to have an agreed 
average standard. The same holds true for the selection of 
wales to courses as 1 is to 1.25, and for the selection of the speed 
standards. Probably before long the limits of yarn, speed, and 
ratio of wales to courses will be determined, and tables will be 
calculated for short intervals between these, so that the fabric 
dimensions and related values can be found for practically all 
conditions. But it would be a waste of time to base such elab- 
orate calculations on such disproportionately scant observations. 

It is likely that the stitches per foot used will be found to 
make rather tight fabric for good running conditions on some 
machmes. This is to be expected, since the theory is developed 
from consideration of the fabric rather than of the machine. 
Consequently, if some machine of some particular cut is un- 
symmetrically designed — and all machines made in a series of 
cuts are so, since it is impractical to make them otherwise — the 
formulas should not be considered erroneous for not conforming 
to that particular machine. Indeed, one of the big advantages 
of the principles of knitting is the impetus which will be given to 
systematic knitting machine design. For instance, the design 
of loop-wheel knitting machinery has been lamentably faulty" 
on the finer gauges, owing partially to the fact that there was 
not enough call for such gauges to warrant the manufacturer in 
going to more trouble than to put more needles in the cylinder 
and more blades in the burs. Consequently, the burs were 
inordinately big and the needles ridiculously long for the work 
which they had to do. Such machines will not knit according 
to the rule on fine gauges, which is not the fault of the rule, but 
of the machine, for generally what a machine does on one gauge, 
it should do on another. 

This deficiency of machines on the extreme gauges (coarse 
and fine) is generally true of all types. In some cases it is ap- 
parently unavoidable, but in many cases it could be partially 
remedied, at least, by designing the machine in conformity with 
the work which it has to do. 

One of the most important requisites for the practical appli- 
cation of the principles is the accurate determination of the 
yarn diameter. Evidently much work must be done in this line 
on every different kind of material with different twists and 



274 The Science of Knitting 

different methods of spinning, etc. The diameter here used, 

namely -===. seems to be somewhat greater than it should 

21 V No. 

be, as the fabric width given by it for flat-work circular machines 
indicates, namely 1.26, which is considerably higher than the 
1.1 generally allowed. However, it has been considered best to 
give the formulas just as they work out, and not to shade them 
in the least, so that the user may learn just how much depend- 
ence he may put in them, and may make his own shading once 
for all. Even when excessive shading is required, the formulas 
are useful as a proportional guide, which is better than no guide 
at all. 

The Strength of Knit Fabrics 

Two factors are considered in the strength question; namely, 
the number of threads which sustain the stress, and the strength 
per thread. 

The number of threads crosswise of the fabric is evidently the 
number of courses per inch, and the number of threads length- 
wise of the fabric is the number of wales per inch multiplied by 
two or by four according to whether the fabric is flat or ribbed. 

The strength per thread is based on the Draper Tables of 
Breaking Weight of American Yarn. The values used are the 
New Breaking Weight of Soft Twist Yarn, according to which 
the tensile strength per square inch of sensible cross-sectional 
area of No^O is 7671 pounds, based on the diameter equal to 
1 -j- 21 VNo., from which it follows that the tensile strength 
of the yarn is very nearly 6000 X (diameter)2, which value has 
been used in calculating the formulas, since the strength of yarn 
is approximately proportional to the square of the diameter, 
with variation of a greater decrease in strength than in diameter. 
The use of 6000 X'(diameter)2 for the strength of the yarn makes 
No. 4 weaker by 13 per cent than the actual tests show, and 
makes No. 30 stronger by 8 per cent; but these variations are 
probably no more than would be found in different sections of 
any one yarn. 

The following pages are copied by permission from Kent's 
"Mechanical Engineers' Pocket Book." 



Knots 



275 



Varieties of Knots. — A great number of knots have been devised of 

which a few only are illustrated, but those selected are the most frequently 
used. In the cut, Fig. 84, they are shown open, or before being drawn 
taut, in order to show the position of the parts. The names usually 
given to them are: ^ 



Bight of a rope. 

Simple or Overhand knot. 

Figure 8 knot. 

Double knot. 

Boat knot. 

Bowline, hrst step. 

Bowline, second step. 

Bowline completed. 

Square or reef knot. 

Sheet bend or weaver's knot. 

Sheet bend with a toggle. 

Carrick bend. 

Stevedore knot completed. 

Stevedore knot commenced. 

Slip knot. 



P- Flemish loop. 

Q. Chain knot with toggle. 

R. Half-hitch. 

S. Timber-hitch. 

T. Clove-hitch. 

U. Rolling-hitch. 

V. Timber-hitch and half-hitch. 

W. Blackwall-hitch. 

X. Fisherman's bend. 

Y. Round turn and half-hitch 

Z. AVall knot commenced. 

A A. Wall knot completed. 

BB, Wall knot crown commenced. 

CC. Wall knot crown completed. 




276 The Science of Knitting 

RATIO AND PROPORTION. 

♦h?t5*? ^^ *^K relation of one number to another, as obtained bv divirlinp 
the first number by the second. Synonymous with quotient '^'''''^'''^ 

Ratio of 2 to* 4, or 2 : 4 = 2/4= 1/2. 
Ratio of 4 to 2, or 4 : 2 = 2. 

of ?'tn^fi '"l/**'*-?^^ ^^^ equality of two ratios. Ratio of 2 to 4 equals ratio 
^^^^^ 9' 2/4=3/6; expressed thus, 2 : 4 :: 3 : 6- read 2 is tn 4 ac % ioT,. « 

The first and fourth terms are called tfeextremes or oSter terms th.' 
second and third the means or inner terms terms, the 

The product of the means equals the product of the extremes: 

2 : 4 : : 3 : 6; 2 X 6 = 12; 3 X 4 = 12. 

Hence, given the first three terms to find the fourth multinlv th« 
second and third terms together and divide by the first "^"^^^P^^ the 

2 : 4 : : 3 : what number? Ans, ^^ ^ == 6. 
Algebraic expression of proportion. —a:b::c:d; ~ =-;ad 'mbc 

from which a = ^ : c/= - • 6= ^^ r = i^ . 
d a ' c ' b 

From the above equations may also be derived the following: 
b:a::d:c a + b : a : :c + d : c a + b : a - b : : c + d ; c ^ d 
a :c::b Id a + b : b : :c + d : d a^ -. bn • • c^ - d^ 
a-.b^cid a-b:b::c-d:d ^ : ^ : : '?/c ^/5 
a - b : a::c - d :c 

Mean proportional between two given numberq let nnH o^ ,•„ v. 

9 anH s T-rTfir!^ Vv, ^' - = 4 :: 4 : 8 ; 4 IS a mean proportional betwppn 

Mean proportional of 2 and 8 = \/2X 8 = 4. 

wh^eift^hreft"rmslr?^iJp,^ ""'' ^u?'""^ *^^ ^°"'*,^ ^^'^ ^^ ^ Proportion 
iV. f i ''"f^e terms are given. — Rule, as above, when the terms arp<5tntpH 

firi^®'^T^^'"''5?^°'"?5' ."multiply the second by the third and Svide hv the 
first. The difficulty is to state the terms in their proneroTdPr Thp 
term which is of the same kind as the required or fourth tSm is ma'dpTh^ 

given terms should be made the second teVm- otherwise rtl to Thm 

&Tropo"?ronns'??e°n"^Stlr " ""^' "' reduced! ^i'VloTuSo^feS! 

54 : 270 ::3:x (the required number) ; x = §2<^Z2 ==15 j^en 

54 . 

£4; -¥fc-^ trjbPt'Stfo.jf zusiVXiitTs ?^rire 



Ratio and Proportion 
Decimal Equivalents of Fractions of One Inch. 



277 



1-64 


.015625 


17-64 


.265625 


33-64 


.515625 


49-64 


.765625 


1-32 


.03125 


9-32 


.28125 


17-32 


.53125 


25-32 


.78125 


3-64 


.046875 


19-64 


.296875 


35-64 


.546875 


51-64 


.796875 


1-16 


.0625 


5-16 


.3125 


9-16 


.5625 


13-16 


.8125 


5-64 


.078125 


21-64 


.328125 


37-64 


.578125 


53-64 


.828125 


3-32 


.09375 


11-32 


.34375 


19-32 


.59375 


27-32 


.84375 


7-64 


.109375 


23-64 


.359375 


39-64 


.609375 


55-64 


.859375 


1-8 


.125 


3-8 


.375 


5-8 


.625 


7-8 


.875 


9-64 


.140625 


25-64 


.390625 


41-64 


.640625 


57-64 


.890625 


5-32 


.15625 


13-32 


.40625 


21-32 


.65625 


29-32 


.90625 


n-64 


.171875 


27-64 


.421875 


43-64 


.671875 


59-64 


.921875 


3-16 


.1875 


7-16 


.4375 


11-16 


.6875 


15-16 


.9375 


13-64 


.203125 


29-64 


.453125 


45-64 


.703125 


61-64 


.953125 


7-32 


.21875 


15-32 


.46875 


23-32 


.71875 


31-32 


.96875 


15-64 


.234375 


31-64 


.484375 


47-64 


.734375 


63-64 


.984375 


1-4 


.25 


1-3 


.50 


3-4 


.75 


1 


1. 



Long Measure. — Measures of Length. 

12 inches = 1 foot. 

3 feet = 1 yard. ) 

1760 yards, or 5280 feet = 1 mile. 

Additional measures of length in occasional use: 1000 mils = 1 inch; 
4 inches = 1 hand; 9 inches = 1 span; 21/2 feet = 1 military pace; 2 yards 
= I fathom; 51/2 yards, or 16 1/2 feet = 1 rod (formerly also called pole or 
perch). 

Measures of Weight. — Avoirdupois, or Commercial 
Weight. 



16 drachms, or 437.5 grains = 

16 ounces, or 7000 grains = 

28 pounds = 

4 quarters = 

20 hundred weight = 

2000 p6unds = 

2204.6 pounds = 

1 stone = 14 pounds; 



1 ounce, oz. 

1 pound, lb. 

1 quarter, qr. 

1 hundredweight, cwt. = 112 lbs. 

1 ton of 2240 lbs., gross or long ton. 

1 net, or short ton. 

1 metric ton. 

1 quintal = 100 pounds. 



The drachm, quarter, hundredweight, stone, and quintal are now 
seldom used in the United States. 



Measures of Work, Power, and Duty. 

Work. — The sustained exertion of pressure through space. 

Unit of work. — One foot-pound, i.e., a pressure of one pound exerted 
through a space of one foot. 

Horse-power. --- The rate of work. Unit of horse-power = 33,000 

ft.-lbs. per minute, or 550 ft.-lbs. per second = 1,980,000 ft.-lbs. per hour. 

Heat unit = heat required to raise 1 lb. of water 1° F. (from 39° to 40°). 

Horse-power expressed in heat units = ^-??S^ = 42.416 heat units per 
minute = 0.707 heat unit per second = 2545 heat units per hour. 
1 lb. of fuel per H. P. per hour = { ^;|tg'gSt"uA^i" ^"' « * °^ ^"^^• 
1,000,000 ft.-lbs. per lb. of fuel == 1.98 lbs. of fuel per H. P. per hour. 

Velocity.— Feet per second = ^|^ = T?X miles per hour. 

3600 15 



Gross 



tons per mile = ^~ = j-| lbs. per yard (single rail.) 



278 



The Science of Knitting 



SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE BOOTS AND CUBE BOOTS 



No. 


Square. 


Cube. 


Sq. 
Root. 


Cube 
Root. 


No. 
3.1 


Square. 


Cube. 


Sq. 
Root. 


Cube 
Root. 


0.1 


.01 


.001 


.3162 


.4642 


9.61 


29.791 


1.761 


1.458 


.15 


.0225 


.0034 


.3873 


.5313 


.2 


10.24 


32.768 


1.789 


1.474 


.2 


.04 


.008 


.4472 


.5848 


.3 


10.89 


35.937 


1.817 


1.489 


.25 


.0625 


.0156 


.500 


.6300 


.4 


11.56 


39.304 


1.844 


1.504 


.3 


.09 


.027 


.5477 


.6694 


.5 


12.25 


42.875 


1.871 


1.518 


.35 


.1225 


.0429 


.5916 


.7047 


.6 


12.96 


46.656 


1.897 


1.533 


.4 


16 


.064 


.6325 


.7368 


.7 


13.69 


50.653 


1.924 


1.547 


.45 


.2025 


.0911 


.6708 


.7663 


.8 


14.44 


54.872 


1.949 


1.560 


.5 


.25 


.125 


.7071 


.7937 


.9 


15.21 


59.319 


1.975 


1.574 


.55 


.3025 


.1664 


.7416 


.8193 


4. 


16. 


64. 


2. 


1.587^ 


.6 


.36 


.216 


.7746 


.8434 


.1 


16.81 


68.921 


2.025 


1.601 


.65 


.4225 


.2746 


.8062 


.8662 


.2 


17.64 


74.088 


2.049 


1.613 


.7 


.49 


.343 


.8367 


.8879 


.3 


18.49 


79.507 


2.074 


1.626 


.75 


.5625 


.4219 


.8660 


.9086 


.4 


19.36 


85.184 


2.098 


1.639 


.8 


.64 


.512 


.8944 


.9283 


.5 


20.25 


91.125 


2.121 


1.651 


.85 


.7225 


.6141 


.9219 


.9473 


.6 


21.16 


97.336 


2.145 


1.663 


.9 


.81 


.729 


.9487 


.9655 


.7 


22.09 


103.823 


2.168 


1.075 


.95 


.9025 


.8574 


.9747 


.9830 


.8 


23.04 


110.592 


2.191 


1.687 


1. 


1. 


1. 


1. 


1. 


.9 


24.01 


117.649 


2.214 


1.698 


1.05 


1.1025 


1.158 


1.025 


1.016 


5. 


25. 


125. 


2.2361 


1.710( 


1.1 


1.21 


1.331 


1.049 


1.032 


.1 


26.01 


132.651 


2.258 


1.721 


1.15 


1.3225 


1.521 


1.072 


1.048 


.2 


27.04 


140.608 


2.280 


1.732 


1.2 


1.44 


1.728 


1.095 


1.063 


.3 


28.09 


148.877 


2.302 


1.744 


1.25 


1.5625 


1.953 


1.118 


1.077 


.4 


29.16 


157.464 


2.324 


1.754 


1.3 


1.69 


2.197 


1.140 


1.091 


.5 


30.25 


166.375 


2.345 


1.765 


1.35 


1 .8225 


2.460 


1.162 


1.105 


.6 


31.36 


175.616 


2.366 


1.776 


1.4 


1.96 


2.744 


1.183 


1.119 


.7 


32.49 


185.193 


2.387 


1.786 


1.45 


2.1025 


3.049 


1.204 


1.132 


.8 


33.64 


195.112 


2.408 


1.797 


1.5 


2.25 


3.375 


1 .2247 


1.1447 


.9 


34.81 


205.379 


2.429 


1.807 


1.55 


2.4025 


3.724 


1.245 


1.157 


6. 


36. 


216. 


2.4495 


1.8171 


1.6 


2.56 


4.096 


1.265 


1.170 


.1 


37.21 


226.981 


2.470 


1.827 


1.65 


2.7225 


4.492 


1.285 


1.182 


.2 


38.44 


238.328 


2.490 


1.837 


1.7 


2.89 


4.913 


1.304 


1.193 


.3 


39.69 


250.047 


2.510 


1.847 


1.75 


3.0625 


5.359 


1.323 


1.205 


.4 


40.96 


262.144 


2.530 


1.857 


1.8 


3.24 


5.832 


1.342 


1.216 


.5 


42.25 


274.625 


2.550 


1.866 


1.85 


3.4225 


6.332 


1.360 


1.228 


.6 


43.56 


287.496 


2.569 


1.876 


1.9 


3.61 


6.859 


1.378 


1.239 


.7 


44.89 


300.763 


2.588 


1.885 


1.95 


3.8025 


7.415 


1.396 


1.249 


.8 


46.24 


314.432 


2.608 


1.895 


2. 


4. 


8. 


1.4142 


1.2599 


.9 


47.61 


328.509 


2.627 


1.904 


.1 


4.41 


9.261 


1.449 


1.281 


7. 


49. 


343. 


2.6458 


1.9125 


.2 


4.84 


10.648 


1.483 


1.301 


.1 


50.41 


357.911 


2.665 


1.922 


.3 


5.29 


12.167 


1.517 


1.320 


.2 


51.84 


373.248 


2.683 


1.931 


.4 


5.76 


13.824 


1.549 


1.339 


.3 


53.29 


389.017 


2.702 


1.940 


.5 


6.25 


15.625 


1.581 


1.357 


.4 


54.76 


405.224 


2.720 


1.949 


.6 


6.76 


17.576 


1.612 


1.375 


.5 


56.25 


421.875 


2.739 


1.957 


.7 


7.29 


19.683 


1.643 


1.392 


.6 


57.76 


438.976 


2.757 


1.966 


.8 


7.84 


21.952 


1.673 


1.409 


.7 


59.29 


456.533 


2.775 


1.975 


.9 


8.41 


24.389 


1.703 


1.426 


.8 


60.84 


474.552 


2.793 


1.983 


3. 


9. 


27. 


1.7321 


1 .4422 


.9 


62.41 


493.039 


2.811 


1.992 



Squares, Cubes, Square and Cube Roots 



279 



No. 


Square 


Cube. 


Sq. 
Root. 


Cube 
1 Hoot. 


No. 


Square Cube. 


Sq. 
Root. 


Cube 
Root. 


8. 


64. 


512. 


2.82841 2. 


45 


2025 


91125 


6.7082 


3.5569 


.1 


65.61 


531.441 


2.846 


2.008 


46 


2116 


97336 


6.7823 


3.5830 


.2 


67.24 


55I.36g 


2.864 


2.017 


47 


2209 


103823 


6.8557 


3.6088 


.3 


68.89 


571.787 


2.881 


2.025 


48 


2304 


110592 


6.9282 


3.6342 


.4 


70.56 


592.704 


2.898 


2.033 


49 


2401 


1 1 7649 


7. 


3.6593 


.5 


72.25 


6(4.125 


2.915 


2.041 


50 


2500 


125000 


7.0711 


3.6840 


.6 


73.96 


636.056 


2.933 


2.049 


51 


2601 


132651 


7.1414 


3.7084 


.7 


75.69 


658.503 


2.950 


2.057 


52 


2704 


1 40608 


7.2111 


3.7325 


.8 


77.44 


681.472 


2.966 


2.065 


53 


2809 


148877 


7.2801 


3.7563 


.9 


79.21 


704.969 


2.983 


2.072 


54 


2916 


1 57464 


7.3485 


3.7798 


9. 


81. 


729. 


3. 


2.0801 


55 


3025 


166375 


7.4162 


3.8030 


.1 


82.81 


753.571 


3.017 


2.088 


56 


3136 


175616 


7.4833 


3.8259 


.2 


84.64 


778.688 


3.033 


2.095 


57 


3249 


185193 


7.5498 


3.8485 


.3 


86.49 


804.357 


3.050 


2.103 


58 


3364 


195112 


7.6158 


3.8709 


.4 


88.36 


830.584 


3.066 


2.110 


59 


3481 


205379 


7.6811 


3.8930 


.5 


90.25 


857.375 


3.082 


2.118 


60 


3600 


216000 


7.7460 


3.9149 


.6 


92.16 


884.736 


3.098 


2.125 


61 


3721 


22698 1 


7.8102 


3.9365 


.7 


94.09 


912.673 


3.114 


2.133 


62 


3844 


238328 


7.8740 


3.9579 


.8 


96.04 


941.192 


3.130 


2.140 


63 


3969 


250047 


7.9373 


3.9791 


.9 


98.01 


970.299 


3.146 


2.147 


64 


4096 


262 1 44 


8. 


4. 


10 


100 


1000 


3.1623 


2.1544 


65 


4225 


274625 


8.0623 


4.0207 


11 


121 


1331 


3.3166 


2.2240 


66 


4356 


287496 


8.1240 


4.0412 


12 


144 


1728 


3.4641 


2.2894 


67 


4489 


300763 


8.1854 


4.0615 


13 


169 


2197 


3.6056 


2.3513 


68 


4624 


314432 


8.2462 


4.0817 


14 


196 


2744 


3.7417 


2.4101 


69 


4761 


328509 


8.3066 


4.1016 


15 


225 


3375 


3.8730 


2.4662 


70 


4900 


343000 


8.3666 


4.1213 


16 


256 


4096 


4. 


2.5198 


71 


5041 


357911 


8.4261 


4.1408 


17 


289 


4913 


4.1231 


2.5713 


72 


5184 


373248 


8.4853 


4.1602 


18 


324 


5832 


4.2426 


2.6207 


73 


5329 


389017 


8.5440 


4. 1 793 


19 


361 


6859 


4.3589 


2.6684 


74 


5476 


405224 


8.6023 


4.1983 


20 


400 


8000 


4.4721 


2.7144 


75 


5625 


421875 


8.6603 


4.2172 


21 


441 


9261 


4.5826 


2.7589 


76 


5776 


438976 


8.7178 


4.2358 


22 


484 , 


10648 


4.6904 


2.8020 


77 


5929 


456533 


8.7750 


4.2543 


23 


529 


12167 


4.7958 


2.8439 


78 


6084 


474552 


8.8318 


4.2727 


24 


576 


13824 


4.8990 


2.8845 


79 


6241 


493039 


8.8882 


4.2908 


25 


625 


15625 


5. 


2.9240 


80 


6400 


512000 


8.9443 


4.3089 


26 


676 


17576 


5.0990 


2.9625 


81 


6561 


531441 


9. 


4.3267 


27 


729 


19683 


5.1962 


3. 


82 


6724 


551368 


9.0554 


4.3445 


28 


784 


21952 


5.2915 


3.0366 


83 


6889 


571787 


9.1104 


4.3621 


29 


841 


24389 


5.3852 


3.0723 


84 


7056 


592704 


9.1652 


4.3795 


30 


900 


27000 


5.4772 


3.1072 


85 


7225 


614125 


9.2195 


4.3968 


31 


961 


29791 


5.5678 


3.1414 


86 


7396 


636056 


9.2736 


4.4140 


32 


1024 


32768 


5.6569 


3.1748 


87 


7569 


658503 


9.3276 


4.4310 


33 


1089 


35937 


5.7446 


3.2075 


88 


7744 


681472 


9.3808 


4.448U 


34 


1156 


39304 


5.8310 


3.2396 


89 


7921 


704969 


9.4340 


4.4647 


35 


1225 


42875 


5.9161 


3.2711 


90 


8100 


729000 


9.4868 


4.4814 


36 


1296 


46656 


6. 


3.3019 


91 


8281 


753571 


9.5394 


4.4979 


37 


1369 


50653 


6.0828 


3.3322 


92 


8464 


778688 


9.5917 


4.5144 


38 


1444 


54872 


6.1644 


3.3620 


93 


8649 


804357 


9.6437 


4.5307 


39 


1521 


59319 


6.2450 


3.3912 


94 


8836 


830584 


9.6954 


4.5468 


40 


1600 


64000 


6.3246 


3.4200 


95 


9025 


857375 


9.7468 


4.5629 


41 


1681 


68921 


6 4031 


3.4482 


96 


9216 


884736 


9.7980 


4.5789 


42 


1764 


74088 


6.4807 


3.4760 


97 


9409 


912673 


9.8489 


4.5947 


43 


1849 


79507 


6.5574 


3.5034 


98 


9604 


941192 


9.8995 


4.6104 


44 


1936 


85184 


6.6332 


3.5303 


99 


9801 


970299 


9.9499 


4.6261 



280 The Science of Knitting 

CIRCUMFERENCES AND AREAS OF CIRCLES. 



Diara. 



Circum. 



. 04909 
.09818 
.14726 
.19635 
. 29452 
.39270 
. 49087 
. 58905 
. 68722 

. 78540 
.88357 
.98175 
1.0799 
1.1781 
1.2763 
1.3744 
1.4726 

1.5708 
1.6690 
1.7671 
1.8653 
1 . 9635 
2.0617 
2.1598 
2.2580 

2.3562 
2.4544 
2.5525 
2.6507 
2.7489 
2.8471 
2.9452 
3.0434 

3.1416 
3.3379 
3.5343 
3.7306 
3.9270 
4.1233 
4.3197 
4.5160 
4.7124 
4.9087 
1051 
3014 
4978 
6941 
8905 



Area. 



6.0868 

6.2832 
6.4795 
6.6759 
6.8722 
7.0686 
7.2649 



.00019 
.00077 
.00173 
.00307 
. 00690 
.01227 
.01917 
.02761 
.03758 



Diam, 



.04909 
.06213 
.07670 
.09281 
.11045 
.12962 
.15033 
.17257 



.19635 
. 22 1 66 
.24850 
.27688 
. 30680 
.33824 
.37122 
.40574 

.44179 
.47937 
.51849 
.55914 
.60132 
. 64504 
. 69029 
.73708 

.7854 
.8866 
.9940 
.1075 
.2272 
.3530 
.4849 
.6230 
.7671 
.9175 
.0739 
.2365 

4053 

5802 

7612 

9483 

1416 
3410 
5466 
7583 
9761 
2000 



33/8 
7/16 
1/2 
9/16 
5/8 
11/16 
3/4 

13/16 
7/8 
15/16 



Circum. 



3. 

1/16 
1/8 
3/16 
1/4 
5/16 
3/8 
7/16 
1/2 
9/16 
5/8 
11/16 
3/4 

13/16 
7/8 
15/16 
4. 

1/16 

1/8 
3/16 
1/4 
5/16 
3/8 
7/16 
1/2 
9/16 
5/8 
11/16 
3/4 

13/16 
7/8 

15/16 

5. 
1/16 
1/8 
3/16 
1/4 
5/16 
3/8 
7/16 
1/2 
9/16 

■5/8 

11/16 
3/4 

13/16 
7/8 

15/16 

6. 



7.4613 
7.6576 
7.8540 
8.0503 
8.2467 
8.4430 
8.6394 
8.8357 
9.0321 
9.2284 

9.4248 
9.6211 
9.8175 
10.014 
10.210 
10.407 
10.603 
10.799 
10.996 
11.192 
1 1 . 388 
11.585 
11.781 
11.977 
12.174 
12.370 
12.566 
12.763 
12.959 
13.155 
13.352 
13.548 
13.744 
13.941 
14.137 
14.334 

14.530 

14.726 

14.923 

15.119 

15.315 

15.512 

15.708 

15.904 

16.101 

16.297 

16.493 

16.690 

16.886 

1 7 . 082 

17.279 

17.475 

17.671 

17.868 

18.064 

18.261 

18.457 

18.653 

18.850 



Area. 



4.4301 
4.6664 
4.9087 
5.1572 
5.4119 
5.6727 
5.9396 
6.2126 
6.4918 
6,7771 



7.0686 
7.3662 
7 . 6699 
7.9798 
8.2958 
8.6179 
8.9462 
9.2806 
9.6211 
9.9678 
10.321 
10.680 
1 1 . 045 
11.416 
1 1 . 793 
12.177 
12.566 
12.962 
13.364 
13.772 
14. 186 
14.607 
15.033 
1 5 . 466 
15.904 
16.349 
16.800 
17.257 
17.721 
18. 190 
18.665 
19. 147 
19.635 
20.129 
20.629 
21.135 
21.648 
22.166 
22.691 
23.221 
23.758 
24.301 
24.850 
25 . 406 
25 . 967 
26.535 
27.109 
27 . 688 
28.274 



Diam, 



61/8 

1/4 
3/8 
1/2 
5/8 
3/4 
7/8 
7. 
1/8 

V^ 
3/8 

1/2 
5/8 
3/4 
7/8 
8. 

1/8 
1/4 
3/8 
1/2 
5/8 
3/4 
7/8 

9. 
1/8 
1/4 
3/8 
1/2 
5/8 
3/4 
7/8 

10. 
1/8 

1/4 
3/8 
1/2 
5/8 
3/4 

7/8 
11. 

1/8 
1/4 
3/8 
1/2 
5/8 
3/4 
7/8 
13. 
1/8 
1/4 
3/8 
1/2 
5/8 
3/4 
7/8 

13. 

1/8 
1/4 
3/8 
1/2 



Circum. 



19.242 

19.635 

20.028 

20. 420 

20.813 

21.206 

21.598 

21.991 

22.384 

22.776 

23.169 

23 . 562 

23.955 

24.347 

24.740 

25. 133 

25.525 

25.918 

26.311 

26.704 

27.096 

27.489 

27.882 

28.274 

28 . 667 

29.060 

29.452 

29.845 

30.238 

30.631 

31.023 

31.416 

3 1 . 809 

32.201 

32.594 

32.987 

33.379 

33.772 

34.165 

34.558 

34.950 

35.343 

35.736 

36.128 

36.521 

36.914 

37.306 

37 . 699 

38.092 

38.485 

38.877 

39.270 

39.663 

40.055 

40.448 

40.841 

41.233 

41.626 

42.019 

42.412 



Area. 



Circumferences and Areas of Cii'cles 



281 



Diam. Circura. Area. Diam.j Circum. Area. Diam.l Circum. Area. 



42.804 
43. 197 
43.590 
43 . 982 
44.375 
44.768 
45.160 
45.553 
45.946 
46.338 
46.731 
47.124 
47.517 
47.909 
48.302 
48.695 
49.087 
49.480 
49.873 
50.265 
50.658 
51.051 
51.444 
51.836 
52.229 
52.622 
53.014 
53.407 
53.800 
54. 192 
54.585 
54.978 
55.371 
55.763 
56.156 
56.549 
56.941 
57.334 
57.727 
58.119 
'58.512 
58.905 
59.298 
59.690 
60.083 
60.476 
60.868 
61.261 
61.654 
62 . 046 
62.439 
62.832 
63.225 
63.617 
64.010 
64.403 
64.795 
65.188 
65.581 
65.973 
66.366 
66.759 
6/ . 1 52 
67.544 
67.937 
68.330 



145.80 

1 48 . 49 

151.20 

153.94 

156.70 

159.48 

562.30 

165.13 

167.99 

170.87 

173.78 

176.7! 

179.67 

182.65 

185.66 

188.69 

191.75 

194.83 

197.93 

201.06 

204.22 

207.39 

210.60 

213.82 

217.08 

220.35 

223.65 

226.98 

230.33 

233.71 

237.10 

240.53 

243.98 

247.45 

250.95 

254.47 

258.02 

261.59 

265. 18 

268.80 

272.45 

276.12 

279.81 

283.53 

287.27 

291.04 

294.83 

298.65 

302.49 

306.35 

310.24 

314.16 

318.10 

322.06 

326.05 

330.06 

334.10 

338.16 

342.25 

346.36 

350.50 

354.66 

358.84 

363.05 

367.28 

371.54 



317/8 
22, 

1/8 
1/4 
3/8 
1/2 
5/8 
3/4 

7/8 
33. 

1/8 
1/4 
3/8 
1/2 
5/8 
3/4 
7/8 

34. 

1/8 
1/4 
3/8 
1/2 
5/8 
3/4 
7/8 

35. 

1/8 
1/4 
3/8 

1/2 
5/8 

3/4 

7/8 

36. 

1/8 
1/4 
3/8 
1/2 
5/8 
3/4 
7/8 
37. 
1/8 
1/4 
3/8 
1/2 
5/8 
3/4 
7/8 

38. 

1/8 
1/4 
3/8 
1/2 
5/8 
3/4 
7/8 
39. 
1/8 
1/4 
3/8 
1/2 
5/8 
3/4 
7/'8 ! 

30. I 



68.722 

69.115 

69.508 

69.900 

70.293 

70.686 

71.079 

71.471 

71.864 

72.257 

72.649 

73 . 042 

73.435 

73.827 

74.220 

74.613 

75.006 

75.398 

75.791 

76. 184 

76.576 

76.969 

77.362 

77.754 

78. 147 

78.540 

78.933 

79.325 

79.718 

80. Ill 

80.503 

80.896 

81.289 

81.681 

82.074 

82.467 

82.860 

83.252 

83.645 

84.038 

84.430 

84.823 

85.216 

85.608 

86.001 

86.394 

86.786 

87.179 

87.572 

87.965 

88.357 

88.750 

89.143 

89.535 

89.928 

90.321 

90.713 

91.106 

91.499 

9 1 . 892 

92 . 284 

92.677 

93.070 

93.462 

93.855 

94.248 



375.83 

380. 13 

384.46 

388.82 

393.20 

397.61 

402.04 

406.49 

410.97 

415.48 

420.00 

424.56 

429. 13 

433.74 

438.36 

443.01 

447.69 

452.39 

457.11 

461.86 

466.64 

471.44 

476.26 

481.11 

485.98 

490.87 

495.79 

500.74 

505.71 

510.71 

515.72 

520.77 

525.84 

530.93 

536.05 

541. 19 

546.35 

551.55 

556.76 

562.00 

567.27 

572.56 

577.87 

583.21 

588.57 

593.96 

599.37 

604.81 

610.27 

615.75 

621.26 

626.80 

632.36 

637.94 

643.55 

649. 18 

654.84 

660.52 

666.23 

671.96 

677.71 

683 . 49 

689.30 

695.13 

700.98 

706 . 86 



301/8 

1/4 
3/8 
V2 
5/8 
3/4 

7/8 
31. 

1/8 
1/4 
3/8 
1/2 
5/8 
3/4 
7/8 

33. 
1/8 
1/4 
3/8 
1/2 
5/8 
3/4 
7/8 

33. 
1/8 
1/4 
3/8 
1/2 
5/8 
3/4 
7/8 

34. 
1/8 
1/4 

3/8 

1/2 
5/8 
3/4 
7/8 

35. 

1/8 
1/4 

3/8 
1/2 
5/8 
3/4 
7/'8 
36. 
1/8 
1/4 
3/8 
1/2 



3/4 

7/8 
37. 

1/8 

1/4 

3/8 
1/2 
5/8 
3/4 

7/8 
38. 

1/8 
1/4 I 



94.640 
95.033 
95.426 
95.819 
96.211 
96.604 
96.997 
97.389 
97.782 
98.175 
98.567 
98.960 
99.353 
99.746 
100. 138 
100.531 
100.924 
101.316 
101.709 
102. 102 
102.494 
102.887 
103.280 
103.673 
104.065 
104.458 
104.851 
105.243 
105.636 
106.029 
106.421 
106.814 
107.207 
107.600 
107.992 
108.385 
108.778 
109. 170 
109.563 
109.956 
110.348 
110.741 
111.134 
111.527 
111.919 
112.312 
112.705 
113.097 
1 1 3 . 490 
113.883 
114.275 
114.668 
115.061 
115.454 
n 5 . 846 
116.239 
116.632 
117.024 
117.417 
117.810 
118.202 
118.596 
118.988 
119.381 
119.773 
120. 166 



712.76 

718.69 

724.64 

730.62 

736.62 

742.64 

748.69 

754.77 

760.87 

766.99 

773. 14 

779.31 

785.51 

791 73 

797.98 

804.25 

810.54 

816.86 

823.21 

829.58 

835.97 

842.39 

848.83 

855.30 

861.79 

868.31 

874.85 

881.41 

888 . 00 

894 . 62 

901.26 

907 . 92 

914.61 

921.32 - 

928.06 

934.82 

941.61 

948 . 42 

955.25 

962.11 

969.00 

975.91 

982 . 84 

989.80 

996.78 

1003.8 

1010.8 

1017.9 

1025.0 

1032.1 

1039.2 

1046.3 

1053.5 

1060.7 

1068.0 

1075.2 

1082.5 

1089.8 

1097.1 

1104.5 

1111.8 

1119.2 

1126.7 

1134.1 

1I4I.6 

1149.1 



282 



The Science of Knitting 



NATURAL TRIGONOMETRICAL FUNCTIONS. 



• M. 

"o 

15 
30 
45 


15 
30 
45 



15 
30 
45 


15 
30 
45 


15 
30 
45 


15 
30 
45 


15 
30 
45 


15 
30 
45 


15 
30 
45 


15 
30 
45 


15 
30 
45 


15 
30 
45 



15 

30 

45 



15 

30 

45 



15 

30 

45 





Sine. 



.00000 
.00436 
.00873 
.01309 
01745 
02181 
02618 
.03054 
.03490 
,03926 
.04362 
.04798 
.05234 
.05669 
.06105 
.06540 
.06976 
.07411 
.07846 
.08281 
.08716 
.09150 
.09585 
.10019 
.10453 
.10887 
,11320 
.11754 
.12187 
.12620 
.13053 
.13485 
.13917 
.14349 
.14781 
.15212 
15643 
16074 
.16505 
.16935 
.17365 
17794 
18224 
.18652 
.19081 
.19509 
.19937 
.20364 
.20791 
.21218 
.21644 
.22070 
.22495 
.22920 
.23345 
.23769 
24192 
.24615 
.25038 
.25460 
.25882 



Co- 
vers. 



Co- 
sine. 



1 .0000 
.99564 
.99127 
.98691 
.98255 
.97819 
.97382 
.96946 
.96510 
.96074 
.95638 
.95202 
.94766 
.94331 
.93895 
.93460 
.93024 
.92589 
.92154 
.91719 
.91284 
.90850 
.90415 
.89981 
.89547 
.89113 
.88680 
.88246 
.87813 
.87380 
.86947 
.86515 
.86083 
.85651 
.85219 
.84788 
.84357 
.83926 
.83495 
.83065 
.82635 
.82206 
.81776 
.81348 
.80919 
.80491 
.80063 
.79636 
.79209 
.78782 
.78356 
.77930 
.77505 
.77080 
.76655 
.76231 
.75808 
.75385 
.74962 
.74540 
.74118 



Cosec. Tang 



Ver. 

Sin. 



Infinite 
229.18 
114.59 
76.397 
57.299 
45.840 
38.202 
32.746 
28.654 
25.471 
22.926 
20.843 
19.107 
17.639 
16.380 
15.290 
14.336 
13.494 
12.745 
12.076 
11.474 
10.929 
10.433 
9.9812 
9.5668 
9.1855 
8.8337 
8.5079 
8.2055 
7.9240 
7.6613 
7.4156 
7.1853 
6.9690 
6.7655 
6.5736 
6.3924 
6.2211 
6.0589 
5.9049 
5.7588 
5.6198 
5.4874 
5.3612 
5.2408 
5.1258 
5.0158 
4.9106 
4.8097 
4.7130 
4.6202 
4.5311 
4.4454 
4.3630 
4.2837 
4.2072 
4. 1336 
4.0625 
3.9939 
3.9277 
3.8637 



Secant. 



.00000 
.00436 
.00873 
.01309 
.01745 
.02182 
.02618 
.03055 
.03492 
.03929 
.04366 
04803 
05241 
.05678 
.06116 
.06554 
06993 
.0743 
.07870 
.08309 
.08749 
.09189 
.09629 
. 1 0069 
.10510 
.10952 
.11393 
.11836 
.12278 
.12722 
3165 
.13609 
14054 
14499 
.14945 
15391 
15838 
16286 
16734 
.17183 
.17633 
.18083 
.18534 
.18986 
.19438 
.19891 
.20345 
.20800 
.21256 
.21712 
.22169 
.22628 
23087 
23547 
24008 
.24470 
24933 
25397 
25862 
.26328 
26795 



Co tan. 



Cotan 



Infinite 
229.18 
114.59 
76.390 
57.290 
45.829 
38.188 
32.730 
28.636 
25.452 
22.904 
20.819 
19.081 
17.611 
16.350 
15.257 
14.301 
13.457 
12.706 
12.035 
11.430 
10.883 
10.385 
9.9310 
9.5144 
9.1309 
8.7769 
8.4490 
8.1443 
7.8606 
7.5958 
7.3479 
7.1154 
6.8969 
6.6912 
6.4971 
6.3138 
6.1402 
5.9758 
5.8197 
5.6713 
5.5301 
5.3955 
5.2672 
5.1446 
5.0273 
4.9152 
4.8077 
4.7046 
4.6057 
4.5107 
4.4194 
4.3315 
4.2468 
4.1653 
4.0867 
4.0108 
3.9375 
3.8667 
3.7983 
3.7320 



Se- 
cant. 



1 .0000 
1 .0000 
1 .0000 
1.0001 
1.0001 

1 .0002 

1 .0003 

1 .0005 

1 .0006 

1 .0008 

1 .0009 
1.0011 
1.0014 
1.0016 
1.0019 
1.0021 
1 .0024 
1 .0028 
1.0031 
1.0034 
1 .0038 
1 .0042 
1 .0046 
1 .005 1 
1.0055 
1 .0060 
1 .0065 
1.0070 
1.0075 
1.0081 
1 .0086 
1 .0092 
1 .0098 
1.0105 
1.0111 
1.0118 
1.0125 
1.0132 
1.0139 
1.0147 
1.0154 
1.0162 
1.0170 
1.0179 
1.0187 
1.0196 
1 .0205 
1.0214 
1.0223 
1.0233 
1.0243 
1.0253 
1.0263 
1.0273 
1 .0284 
1 .0295 
1 .0306 
1.0317 
1 .0329 
1.0341 
1.0353 



Ver. 
Sin. 



Tang. 



Cosec. 



.00000 
.00001 
.00004 
.00009 
.00015 
.00024 
.00034 
.00047 
.00061 
.00077 
.00095 
.00115 
00137 
.00161 
00187 
.00214 
,00244 
.00275 
.00308 
.00343 
.00381 
.00420 
.00460 
.00503 
.00548 
.00594 
.00643 
.00693 
.00745 
.00800 
.00856 
.00913 
.00973 
.01035 
.01098 
,01164 
.01231 
01300 
.01371 
.01444 
01519 
.01596 
.01675 
.01755 
.01837 
.01921 
.02008 
.02095 
.02185 
.02277 
.02370 
.02466 
.02563 
.02662 
02763 
02866 
.02970 
.03077 
.03185 
.03295 
,03407 



Cosine. 



Co- 
vers. 



1 .0000 
.99999 
.99996 
.99991 
.99985 
.99976 
.99966 
.99953 
.99939 
.99923 
.99905 
.99885 
.99863 
.99839 
.99813 
.99786 
.99756 
.99725 
.99692 
.99656 
.99619 
.99580 
.99540 
.99497 
.99452 
.99406 
.99357 
.99307 
.99255 
.99200 
.99144 
.99086 
.99027 
.98965 
.98902 
.98836 
.98769 
.98700 
.98629 
.98556 
.98481 
.98404 
.98325 
.98245 
.98163 
.98079 
.97992 
.97905 
.97815 
.97723 
.97630 
.97534 
.97437 
.97338 
.97237 
.97134 
.97030 
.96923 
.96815 
.96705 
.96593 



90 



89 



87 



86 



85 



84 



83 



82 



81 



80 



79 



78 



77 



76 



75 



Sine. 



M. 



From 75° to 90° read from bottom of table upwards. 



Natural Trigonometrical Functions 



^8S 



• 


M. 


Sine. 


Co- 
vers. 


Cosec 


Tang 


Cotan 


Secant 


Ver. 

Sii. 


Cosine. 











.25882 


.74118 


3.8637 


.26795 


3.7320 


1.0353 


.03407 


.96593 


75 


( 




15 


.26303 


.73697 


3.8018 


.27263 


3.6680 


1.0365 


.03521 


.96479 




4; 




30 


.26724 


.73276 


3.7420 


.27732 


3.6059 


1.0377 


.03637 


.96363 




3( 




45 


.27144 


.72856 


3.6840 


.28203 


3.5457 


1 .0390 


.03754 


.96246 


74 


1! 







.27564 


.72436 


3.6280 


.28674 


3.4874 


1 .0403 


.03874 


.96126 




( 




15 


.27983 


.72017 


3.5736 


.29147 


3.4308 


1.0416 


.03995 


.96005 




4; 




30 


.28402 


.71598 


3.5209 


.29621 


3.3759 


1 .0429 


.04118 


.95882 




3( 




45 


.28820 


.71180 


3.4699 


.30096 


3.3226 


1 .0443 


.04243 


.95757 




1! 







.29237 


.70763 


3.4203 


.30573 


3.2709 


1.0457 


.04370 


.95630 


73 


C 




15 


.29654 


.70346 


3.3722 


.31051 


3.2205 


1.0471 


.04498 


.95502 




4f 




30 


.30070 


.69929 


3.3255 


.31530 


3.1716 


1.0485 


.04628 


.95372 




3( 




45 


.30486 


.69514 


3.2801 


.32010 


3.1240 


1.0500 


.04760 


.95240 




15 







.30902 


.69098 


3.2361 


.32492 


3.0777 


1.0515 


.04894 


.95106 


73 


C 




15 


.31316 


.68684 


3.1932 


.32975 


3.0326 


1.0530 


.05030 


.94970 




43 




30 


.31730 


.68270 


3.1515 


.33459 


2.9887 


1.0545 


.05168 


.94832 




3C 




45 


.32144 


.67856 


3.1110 


.33945 


2.9459 


1 .0560 


.05307 


.94693 




13 







.32557 


.67443 


3.0715 


.34433 


2.9042 


1.0576 


.05448 


.94552 


71 


C 




15 


.32969 


.6703 I 


3.0331 


.34921 


2.8636 


1.0592 


.05591 


.94409 




43 




30 


.33381 


.66619 


2.9957 


.35412 


2.8239 


1.0608 


.05736 


.94264 




3C 




45 


.33792 


.66208 


2.9593 


.35904 


2.7852 


1 .0625 


.05882 


.94118 




19 







.34202 


.65798 


2.9238 


.36397 


2.7475 


1 .0642 


.0603 1 


.93969 


70 


C 




15 


.34612 


.65388 


2.8892 


.36892 


2.7106 


1.0659 


.06181 


.93819 




43 




30 


.35021 


.64979 


2.8554 


.37388 


2.6746 


1.0676 


.06333 


.93667 




30 




45 


.35429 


.64571 


2.8225 


.37887 


2.6395 


1 .0694 


.06486 


.93514 




19 







.35837 


.64163 


2.7904 


.38386 


2.6051 


1.0711 


.06642 


.93358 


69 


Q 




15 


.36244 


.63756 


2.7591 


.38888 


2.5715 


1.0729 


.06799 


.93201 




43 




30 


.36650 


.63350 


2.7285 


.39391 


2.5386 


1 .0743 


.06958 


.93042 




30 




45 


.37056 


.62944 


2.6986 


.39896 


2.5065 


1 .0766 


.07119 


.92881 




15 







.37461 


.62539 


2.6695 


.40403 


2.4751 


1.0785 


.07282 


.92718 


68 


Q 




15 


.37865 


.62135 


2.6410 


.40911 


2.4443 


1 .0804 


.07446 


.92554 




45 




30 


.38268 


.61732 


2.6131 


.41421 


2.4142 


1.0824 


.07612 


.92388 




30 




45 


.38671 


.61329 


2.5859 


.41933 


2.3847 


1 .0844 


.07780 


.92220 




15 







.39073 


.60927 


2.5593 


.42447 


2.3559 


1 .0864 


.07950 


.92050 


67 







15 


.39474 


.60526 


2.5333 


.42963 


2.3276 


1 .0884 


.08121 


.91879 




45 




30 


.39875 


.60125 


2.5078 


.43481 


2.2998 


1 .0904 


.08294 


.91706 




30 




45 


.40275 


.59725 


2.4829 


.44001 


2.2727 


1 .0925 


.08469 


.91531 




13 







.40674 


.59326 


2.4586 


.44523 


2.2460 


1 .0946 


.08645 


.91355 


66 







15 


.41072 


.58928 


2.4348 


.45047 


2.2199 


1.0968 


.08824 


.91176 




4S 




30 


.41469 


.58531 


2.4114 


.45573 


2.1943 


1.0989 


.09004 


.90996 




30 




45 


.41866 


.58134 


2.3886 


.46101 


2.1692 


1.1011 


.09186 


.90814 




15 







.42262 


.57738 


2.3662 


.46631 


2.1445 


1.1034 


.09369 


.90631 


65 







15 


.42657 


.57343 


2.3443 


.47163 


2.1203 


1.1056 


.09554 


.90446 




49 




30 


.43051 


.56949 


2.3228 


.47697 


2.0965 


?.1079 


.09741 


.90259 




30 




45 


.43445 


.56555 


2.3018 


.48234 


2.0732 


1.1102 


.09930 


.90070 




15 







.43837 


.56163 


2.2812 


.48773 


2.0503 


1.1126 


.10121 


.89879 


64 







15 


.44229 


.55771 


2.2610 


.49314 


2.0278 


1.1150 


.10313 


.89687 




45 




30 


.44620 


.55380 


2.2412 


.49858 


2.0057 


1.1174 


.10507 


.89493 




30 




45 


.45010 


.54990 


2.2217 


.50404 


1 .9840 


1.1198 


.10702 


.89298 




15 







.45399 


.54601 


2.2027 


.50952 


1 .9626 


1.1223 


.10899 


.89101 


63 







15 


.45787 


.54213 


2.1840 


.51503 


1.9416 


1.1248 


.11098 


88902 




45 




30 


.46175 


.53825 


2.1657 


.52057 


1.9210 


1.1274 


.11299 


.88701 




30 




45 


.46561 


.53439 


2.1477 


.52612 


1 .9007 


1.1300 


.11501 


.88499 




15 







.46947 


.53053 


2.1300 


.53171 


1 .8807 


1.1326 


.11705 


.88295 


63 







15 


.47332 


.52668 


2.1127 


.53732 


1.8611 


1.1352 


.11911 


.88089 




45 




30 


.47716 


.52284 


2.0957 


.54295 


1.8418 


1.1379 


.12118 


.87882 




30 




45 


.48099 


.51901 


2.0790 


.54862 


1 .8228 


1.1406 


.12327 


.87673 




15 







.48481 


.51519 


2.0627 


.55431 


1 .8040 


1.1433 


.12538 


.87462 


61 







15 


.48862 


.51138 


2.0466 


.56003 


1.7856 


1.1461 


.12750 


.87250 




45 




30 


.49242 


.50758 


2.0308 


.56577 


1.7675 


1.1490 


.12964 


.87036 




30 




45 


.49622 


.50378 


2.0152 


.57155 


1.7496 


1.1518 


.13180 


.86820 




15 







.50000 


.50000 


2.0000 


.57735 


1.7320 


1.1547 


.13397 


.86603 


60 









Co- 
sine. 


Ver. 
Sin. 


Se- 
cant. 


Co tan. 


Tang. 


Cosec. 


Co- 
vers. 


Sine. 


o 


M. 



From 60* to 75° read from bottom of table upwards. 



284 



The Science of Knitting 



o 


M. 


Sine. 


Co- 
vers. 


Cosec 


Tang. 


Co tan. 


Secant. 


Ver. 
Sin. 


Cosine 




80 





.50000 


.50000 


2.0000 


.57735 


1.7320 


1.1547 


.13397 


.86603 


60 







15 


.50377 


.49623 


1 .9850 


.58318 


1.7147 


1.1576 


.13616 


.86^84 




45 




30 


.50754 


.49246 


1 .9703 


.58904 


1.6977 


1.1606 


.13837 


.86163 




30 




45 


.51129 


.48871 


1.9558 


.59494 


1 .6808 


1.1636 


.14059 


.85941 




15 


81 





.51504 


.48496 


1.9416 


.60086 


1 .6643 


1.1666 


.14283 


.85717 


59 


G 




15 


.51877 


.48123 


1 .9276 


.60681 


1.6479 


1.1697 


.14509 


.85491 




45 




30 


.52250 


.47750 


1.9139 


.61280 


1.6319 


1.1728 


.14736 


.85264 




30 




45 


.52621 


.47379 


1 .9004 


.61882 


1.6160 


1.1760 


.14965 


.85035 




15 


S3 





.52992 


.47008 


1.8871 


.62487 


1 .6003 


1.1792 


.15195 


.84803 


58 







15 


.53361 


.46639 


1.8740 


.63095 


1 .5849 


1.1824 


.15427 


.84573 




45 




30 


.53730 


.46270 


1.8612 


.63707 


1.5697 


1.1857 


.15661 


.84339 




30 




45 


.54097 


.45903 


1 .8485 


.64322 


1.5547 


1.1890 


. 1 5896 


.84104 




15 


33 





.54464 


.45536 


1.8361 


.64941 


1.5399 


1.1924 


.16133 


.83867 


57 







15 


.54829 


.45171 


1 .8238 


.65563 


1.5253 


1.1958 


.16371 


.83629 




45 




30 


.55194 


.44806 


1.8118 


.66188 


1.5108 


1.1992 


.16611 


.83389 




30 




45 


.55557 


.44443 


1 .7999 


.66818 


1 .4966 


1.2027 


.16853 


.83147 




15 


34 





.55919 


.44081 


1.7883 


.67451 


1.4826 


1 .2062 


.17096 


.82904 


56 







15 


.56280 


.43720 


1.7768 


.68087 


1 .4687 


1 .2098 


.17341 


.82659 




45 




30 


.56641 


.43359 


1.7655 


.68728 


1.4550 


1.2134 


.17587 


.82413 




30 




45 


.57000 


.43000 


1.7544 


.69372 


1.4415 


1.2171 


.17835 


.82165 




15 


35 





.57358 


.42642 


1.7434 


.70021 


1.4281 


1 .2208 


.18085 


.81915 


55 







15 


.57715 


.42285 


1.7327 


.70673 


1.4150 


1.2245 


.18336 


.81664 




45 




30 


.58070 


.41930 


1.7220 


.71329 


1.4019 


1.2283 


.18588 


.81412 




30 




45 


.58425 


.41575 


1.7116 


.71990 


1.3891 


1.2322 


.18843 


.81157 




15 


36 





.58779 


.41221 


1.7013 


.72654 


1.3764 


1.2361 


.19098 


.80902 


54 







15 


.59131 


.40869 


1.6912 


.73323 


1.3638 


1 .2400 


.19356 


.80644 




45 




30 


.59482 


.40518 


1.6812 


.73996 


1.3514 


1 .2440 


.19614 


.80386 




30 




45 


.59832 


.40168 


1.6713 


.74673 


1.3392 


1 .2480 


.19875 


.80125 




15 


37 





.60181 


.39819 


1.6616 


.75355 


1.3270 


1.2521 


.20136 


.79864 


53 







15 


.60529 


.39471 


1.6521 


.76042 


1.3151 


1.2563 


.20400 


.79600 




45 




30 


.60876 


.39124 


1.6427 


.76733 


1.3032 


1 .2605 


.20665 


.79335 




30 




45 


.61222 


.38778 


1.6334 


.77428 


1.2915 


1.2647 


.20931 


.79069 




15 


38 





.61566 


.38434 


1 .6243 


.78129 


1.2799 


1 .2690 


.21199 


.78801 


53 







15 


.61909 


.38091 


1.6153 


.78834 


1 .2685 


1.2734 


.21468 


.78532 




45 




30 


.62251 


.37749 


1 .6064 


.79543 


1.2572 


1.2778 


.21739 


.78261 




30 




45 


.62592 


.37408 


1.5976 


.80258 


1 .2460 


1 2822 


.22012 


.77988 




15 


89 





.62932 


.37068 


1.5890 


.80978 


1.2349 


1 .2868 


.22285 


.77715 


51 







15 


.63271 


.36729 


1.5805 


.81703 


1.2239 


1.2913 


.22561 


.77439 




45 




30 


.63608 


.36392 


1.5721 


.82434 


1.2131 


1 .2960 


.22838 


.77162 




30 




45 


.63944 


.36056 


1.5639 


.83169 


1 .2024 


1.3007 


.23116 


.76884 




15 


40 





.64279 


.35721 


1.5557 


.83910 


1.1918 


1.3054 


.23396 


.76604 


50 







15 


.64612 


.35388 


1.5477 


.84656 


1.1812 


1.3102 


.23677 


.76323 




45 




30 


.64945 


.35055 


1.5398 


.85408 


1.1708 


1.3151 


.23959 


.76041 




30 




45 


.65276 


.34724 


1.5320 


.86165 


1.1606 


1 .3200 


.24244 


.75756 




15 


41 





.65606 


.34394 


1.5242 


.86929 


1.1504 


1.3250 


.24529 


.75471 


49 







15 


.65935 


.34065 


1 5166 


.87698 


1.1403 


1.3301 


.24816 


.75184 




45 




30 


.66262 


.33738 


1 .5092 


.88472 


1.1303 


1.3352 


.25104 


.74896 




30 




45 


.66588 


.3341-2 


1.5018 


.89253 


1.1204 


1.3404 


.25394 


.74606 




15 


42 





.66913 


.33087 


1 .4945 


.90040 


1.1106 


1.3456 


.25686 


.74314 


48 







15 


.67237 


.32763 


1.4873 


.90834 


1.1009 


1.3509 


.25978 


.74022 




45 




30 


.67559 


.32441 


1 .4802 


.91633 


1.0913 


1.3563 


.26272 


.73728 




30 




45 


.67880 


.32120 


1.4732 


.92439 


1.0818 


1.3618 


.26568 


.73432 




15 


43 





.68200 


.31800 


1 .4663 


.93251 


1 .0724 


1.3673 


.26865 


.73135 


47 







15 


.68518 


.31482 


1.4595 


.94071 


1 .0630 


1.3729 


.27163 


.72837 




45 




30 


.68835 


.31165 


1.4527 


.94896 


1.0538 


1.3786 


.27463 


.72537 




30 




45 


.69151 


.30849 


1.4461 


.95729 


1 .0446 


1.3843 


.27764 


.72236 




15 


44 





.69466 


.30534 


1.4396 


.96569 


1.0355 


1 .3902 


.28066 


.71934 


46 







15 


.69779 


.30221 


1.4331 


.97416 


1 .0265 


1.3961 


.28370 


.71630 




45 




30 


.70091 


.29909 


1.4267 


.98270 


1.0176 


1 .4020 


.28675 


.71325 




30 




45 


.70401 


.29599 


1 .4204 


.99131 


1 .0088 


1.4081 


.28981 


.71019 




15 


45 





70711 


.29289 


1.4142 


1 .0000 


1 .0000 


1.4142 


.29289 


.70711 


45 







Cosine 


Ver. 
Sin. 


Se- 
cant. 


Cotan. 


Tang. 


Cosec. 


Co- 
ver.-. 


Sine. 


o 


M. 



From 45° to 60° read from bottom of table upwards. 



Tables of Time 



285 



Table of Time in Dififerent Units 

Counting 9 hours per day and 300 days per year 





Second 


Minute 


Hour 


Day 


Week 


Month 


Year 


9,720,000 

810,000 

194,400 

32,400 

3,600 

60 


162,000 

13,500 

3,240 

540 

60 


2700 

225 

54 

9 


300 

25 

6 


50 
4i 


12 


Month 


Week 


Day 

Hour 


Minute 





Table of Time in Different Units 
Counting 10 hours per day, and 300 days per year 





Second 


Minute 


Hour 


Day 


Week 


Month 


Year 


10,800,000 

900,000 

216,000 

36,000 

3,600 

60 


180,000 

15,000 

3,600 

600 

60 


3000 

250* 

60 

10 


300 

25 

6 


50 
4i 


12 


Month 

Week 


Day 


Hour 


Minute 





286 The Science of Knitting 

MENSURATION 

PLANE SURFACES 

Quadrilateral. — A four-sided figure. 

Parallelogram. — A quadrilateral with opposite sides parallel. 

Varieties. — Square: four sides equal, all angles right angles. 
Rectangle : opposite sides equal, all angles right angles. Rhom- 
bus: four sides equal, opposite angles equal, angles not right 
angles. Rhomboid: opposite sides equal, opposite angles equal, 
angles not right angles. 

Trapezium. — A quadrilateral with unequal sides. 

Trapezoid. — A quadrilateral with only one pair of opposite 
sides parallel. 

Diagonal of a square = V2 X s ide^ = 1.4142 X side. 

Diag. of a rectangle = Vsum of squares of two adjacent sides. 

Area of any parallelogram = base X altitude. 

Area of rhombus or rhomboid = product of two adjacent sides 
X sine of angle included between them. 

Area of a trapezoid = product of half the sum of the two 
parallel sides by the perpendicular distance between them. 

To find the area of any quadrilateral figure. — Divide the 
quadrilateral into two triangles; the sum of the areas of the 
triangles is the area. 

Or, multiply half the product of the two diagonals by the sine 
of the angle at their intersection. 

To find the area of a quadrilateral which may be inscribed in a 
circle. — From half the sum of the four sides subtract each side 
severally; multiply the four remainders together; the square root 
of the product is the area. 

Triangle. — A three-sided plane figure. 

Fane^zes. — Right-angled, having one right angle; obtuse- 
angled, having one obtuse angle; isosceles, having two equal 
angles and two equal sides; equilateral, having three equal sides 
and equal angles. 

The sum of the three angles of every triangle = 180 degrees. 

The sum of the two acute angles of a right-angled triangle = 
90 degrees. 

Hypothenuse o f a ri ght- angled trian gle, the side oppo site the 
right angle, = Vsum of the squares of the other two sides. If 



Plane Surfaces 287 

a and b are t he tw o sides and c t he hypothenuse, c~ = «« _|_ 52. 

a = Vc2 - 62 = V(c + 6) (c - 6). 

If the two sides are equal, side = hyp -i- 1.4142; or hyp X 
.7071. 

To find the area of a triangle : 

Rule 1. Multiply the base by half the altitude. 

Rule 2. Multiply half the product of two sides by the sine of 
the included angle. 

Rule 3. From half the sum of the three sides subtract each 
side severally; multiply together the half sum and the three 
remainders, and extract the square root of the product. 

The area of an equilateral triangle is equal to one-fourth the 
square j)f one of its sides multiphed by the square root of 3 

= ~J~> « bemg the side; or a^ X 0.433013. 

Area of a triangle given, to find base: Base = twice skea. ^ 
perpendicular height. 

Area of a triangle given, to find height: Height = twice 
area -7- base. 

Two sides and base given, to find perpendicular height (in a 
triangle in which both of the angles at the base are acute). 

Rule. —As the base is to the sum of the sides, so is the differ- 
ence of the sides to the difference of the divisions of the base 
made by drawing the perpendicular. Half this difference being 
added to or subtracted from half the base will give the two 
divisions thereof. As each side and its opposite division of the 
base constitutes a right-angled triangle, t he perpendic ular is 
ascertamedby therule: Perpendicular = Vhyp2 - base^. 

Areas of similar figures are to each other as the squares of theu- 
respective hnear dimensions. If the area of an equilateral 
triangle of side = 1 is 0.433013 and its height 0.86603, what is 
the area of a similar triangle whose height = 1"? 866032- 
12 :: 0.433013 : 0.57735, Ans. 

Polygon. — A plane figure having three or more sides. Reg- 
ular or irregular, according as the sides or angles are equal or 
unequal. Polygons are named from the number of their sides 
and angles. 

To find the area of an irregular polygon. — Draw diagonals 
dividmg the polygon into triangles, and find the sum of the areas 
of these triangles. 



288 



The Science of Knitting 



Horse Power Transmitted by Cold-rolled Steel Shafting at Different Speeds 
as Prime Movers or Head Shafts Carrying Main Driving Pulley or Gear, 
well Supported by Bearings. 

Formula H.P. = d^R -^ 100. 





Revolutions 


per m 


nute. 




Revolutions per minute. 


Dia. 


100 


200 


300 


400 


500 


Dia. 


100 


200 


300 


400 


500 


^ 


3.4 


6.7 


10.1 


13.5 


16.9 


21 


24 


48 


72 


95 


119 


1^ 


3.8 


7.6 


11.4 


15.2 


19.0 


211 


25 


51 


76 


101 


127 


If 


4.3 


8.6 


12.8 


17.1 


21.0 


3 


27 


54 


81 


108 


135 


IH 


4.8 


9.6 


14.4 


19.2 


24.0 


3| 


31 


61 


91 


122 


152 


If 


5.4 


10.7 


16.1 


21.0 


27.0 


3il 


32 


65 


97 


129 


162 


lit 


5.9 


11.9 


17.8 


24.0 


30.0 


n 


34 


69 


103 


137 


172 


11 


6.6 


13.1 


19.7 


26.0 


33.0 


H 


38 


77 


115 


154 


192 


\\% 


7.3 


14.5 


22.0 


29.0 


36.0 


3/6 


41 


81 


122 


162 


203 


2 


8.0 


16.0 


24.0 


32.0 


40.0 


3^ 


43 


86 


128 


171 


214 


2i's 


8.8 


17.6 


26.0 


35.0 


44.0 


3l«6 


45 


90 


136 


180 


226 


2i 


9.6 


19.2 


29.0 


38.0 


48.0 


3| 


48 


95 


143 


190 


238 


2^ 


10.5 


21.0 


31.0 


42.0 


52.0 


3H 


50 


100 


150 


200 


251 


2i 


11.4 


23.0 


34.0 


45.0 


57.0 


3f 


55 


105 


158 


211 


264 


2t\ 


12.4 


25.0 


37.0 


49.0 


62.0 


H 


58 


116 


174 


233 


291 


2| 


13.4 


27.0 


40.0 


54.0 


67.0 


015 


61 


122 


183 


244 


305 


2/b 


14.5 


29.0 


43.0 


58.0 


72.0 


4 


64 


128 


192 


256 


320 


n 


15.6 


31.0 


47.0 


62.0 


78.0 


4fs 


74 


147 


221 


294 


367 


2j% 


16.8 


34.0 


50.0 


67.0 


84.0 


4i 


77 


154 


230 


307 


383 


21 


18.1 


36.0 


54.0 


72.0 


90.0 


4/b 


88 


175 


263 


350 


438 


2H 


19.4 


39.0 


58.0 


77.0 


97.0 


4 


91 


182 


273 


365 


456 


2f 


21.0 


41.0 


62.0 


83.0 


104.0 


4f 


107 


214 


322 


429 


537 


m 


22.0 


44.0 


67.0 


89.0 


111.0 


5 


125 


250 


375 


500 


625 



For H.P. transmitted by turned steel shafts, as prime movers, 
etc., multiply the figures by 0.8. 

For shafts, as second movers or line I Cold-rolled Turned 
shafts, bearings 8 feet apart, multiply by } 1*43 1.11 

For simply transmitting power, short 
countershafts, etc., bearings not over 8 feet 
apart, multiply by 2 2.50 

The horse power is directly proportional to the number of 
revolutions per minute. 

Speed of Shafting. — 

Machine shops 120 to 240 

Wood-working 250 to 300 

Cotton and woolen mills 300 to 400 



Plane Surfaces 



289 



Horse Power of a Leather Belt One Inch Wide. (Nagle.) 

Formula: H.P. = CVtw{S - 0.012 V^) -h 550. 
For/ = 0.40, a = 180 degrees, C = 0.715, w = 1. 



Laced Belts, S = 275. 


Riveted Belts, S = 400. 


>, 8 


Thickness in inches = f. 


ii 


Thickness in inches = t. 


IS. 




O » 

•3 a 




1 


1 
0.51 


0.59 


1% 
0.63 


0.73 


1 
0.84 


1.05 


1.18 


/j 


I 

4 


^B 


i 


1 


3..39 


3.87 


10 


15 


1.69 1.94 


2.42 


2.58 


2.91 


15 


0.75 


0.88 


1.00 


1.16 


1.32 


1.66 


1.77 


20 


2.24 2.57 


3.21 


3.42 


3.85 


4.49 


5.13 


20 


1.00 


1.17 


1.32 


1.54 


1.75 


2.19 


2.34 


25 


2.79 3.19 


3.98 


4.25 


4.78 


5.57 


6.37 


25 


1.23 


1.43 


1.61 


1.88 


2.16 


2.69 


2.86 


30 


3.31 


3.79 


4.74 


5.05 


5.67 


6.62 


7.58 


30 


1.47 


1.72 


1.93 


2.25 


2.58 


3.22 


3.44 


35 


3.82 


4.37 


5.46 


5.83 


6.56 


7.65 


8.75 


35 


1.69 


1.97 


2.22 


2.59 


2.96 


3.70 


3.94 


40 


4.33 


4.95 


6.19 


6.60 


7.42 


8.66 


9.90 


40 


1.90 


2.22 


2.49 


2.90 


3.32 


4.15 


4.44 


45 


4.85 


5.49 


6.86 


7.32 


8.43 


9.70 


10.98 


45 


2.09 


2.45 


2.75 


3.21 


3.67 


4.58 


4.89 


50 


5.26 


6.01 


7.51 


8.02 


9.02 


10.52 


12.03 


50 


2.27 


2.65 


2.98 


3.48 


3.98 


4.97 


5.30 


55 


5.68 


6.50 


8.12 


8.66 


9.74 


11.36 


13.00 


55 


2.44 


2.84 


3.19 


3.72 


4.26 


5.32 


5.69 


60 


6.09 


6.96 


8.70 


9.28 


10.43 


12.17 


13.91 


60 


2.58 


3.01 


3.38 


3.95 


4.51 


5.64 


6.02 


65 


6.45 


7.37 


9.22 


9.83 


11.06 


12.90 


14.75 


65 


2.71 


3.16 


3.55 


4.14 


4.74 


5.92 


6.32 


70 


6.78 


7.75 


9.69 


10.33 


11.62 


13.56 


15.50 


70 


2.81 


3.27 


3.68 


4.29 


4.91 


6.14 


6.54 


75 


7.09 


8.11 


10.13 


10.84 


12.16 


14.18 


16.21 


75 


2.89 


3.37 


3.79 


4.42 


5.05 


6.31 


6.73 


80 


7.36 


8.41 


10.51 


11.21 


12.61 


14.71 


16.81 


80 


2.94 


3.43 


3.86 


4.50 


5.15 


6.44 


6.86 


85 


7.58 


8.66 


10.82 


11.55 


13.00 


15.16 


17.32-- 


85 


2.97 


3.47 


3.90 


4.55 


5.20 


6.50 


6.93 


90 


7.74 


8.35 


11.06 


11.80 


13.27 


15.48 


17.69 


90 


2.97 


3.47 


3.90 


4.55 


5.20 


6.50 


6.93 


100 


7.96 


9.10 


11.37 


12.13 


13.65 


15.92 


18.20 


The 


H.P. becomes a maximum at 


T 


he H.P. 


becomes a maximum at 


87.41 f 


t. per sec. =5245 ft. per min. 


105. 


4 ft. per £ 


ec. = 6324 ft. per min. 



In the above table the angle of subtension, a is taken at 180 
degrees. 

Should it be I 90°[l00''|110°|l20°[130''|l40''|150°!l60°|l70°[180''|200'' 

Multiply above values by. I .651 .701 .751 .791 .831 .871 .91 1 .941 .971 1 1 1.05 

A. F. Nagle's Formula {Trans. A. S. M. E., vol. ii, 1881, p. 91. 
Tables published in 1882). 

'S - 0.012 F2^ 



^•^• = ^^^"^1— ^50 ]' 



C= 1 - 10-°-oo758/a: 
a= degrees of belt contact; 
/= coefficient of friction; 
w= width in inches; 



t= thickness in inches; 
V = velocity in feet per second; 
S= stress upon belt per square 
inch. 



290 The Science of Knitting 

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES ON BELTING. 

Formulae are useful for proportioning belts and pulleys, but 
they furnish no means of estimating how much power a particular 
belt may be transmitting at any given time, any more than the 
size of the engine is a measure of the load it is actually drawing, 
or the known strength of a horse is a measure of the load on the 
wagon. The only reliable means of determining the power 
actually transmitted is some form of dynamometer. (See 
Trans. A. S. M. E., vol. xii, p. 707.) 

If we increase the thickness, the power transmitted ought to 
increase in proportion; and for double belts we should have half 
the width required for a single belt under the same conditions. 
With large pulleys and moderate velocities of belt it is probable 
that this holds good. With small pulleys, however, when a 
double belt is used, there is not such perfect contact between the 
pulley-face and the belt, due to the rigidity of the latter, and more 
work is necessary to bend the belt-fibers than when a thinner 
and more pliable belt is used. The centrifugal force tending to 
throw the belt from the pulley also increases with the thickness, 
and for these reasons the width of a double belt required to 
transmit a given horse power when used with small pulleys is 
generally assumed not less than seven-tenths the width of a 
single belt to transmit the same power. (Flather on "Dyna- 
mometers and Measurement of Power.") 

F. W. Taylor, however, finds that great pliability is objection- 
able, and favors thick belts even for small pulleys. The power 
consumed in bending the belt around the pulley he considers 
inappreciable. According to Rankine's formula for centrifugal 
tension, this tension is proportional to the sectional area of the 
belt, and hence it does not increase with increase of thickness 
when the width is decreased in the same proportion, the sectional 
area remaining constant. 

Scott A. Smith {Trans. A. S. M. E., x, 765) says: The best 
belts are made from all oak-tanned leather, and curried with the 
use of cod oil and tallow, all to be of superior quality. Such 
belts have continued in use thirty to forty years when used as 
simple driving-belts, driving a proper amount of power, and 
having had suitable care. The flesh side should not be run to 
the pulley-face, for the reason that the wear from contact with 
the pulley should come on the grain side, as that surface of the 



Miscellaneous Notes on Belting 291 

belt is much weaker in its tensile strength than the flesh side- 
also as the grain is hard it is more enduring for the wear of 
attrition; further, if the gram is actually worn off, then the belt 
may not suffer in its integrity from a ready tendency of the hard 
grain side to crack. 

The most intimate contact of a belt with a pulley comes, first 
m the smoothness of a pulley-face, including freedom from ridges 
and hollows left by turning-tools; second, in the smoothness of 
the surface and evenness in the texture or body of a belt- third 
in havmg the crown of the driving and receiving pulleys exactly 
ahke, — as nearly so as is practicable in a commercial sense- "^ 
fourth, m havmg the crown of pulleys not over i inch for a 24-inch 
face, that is to say, that the pulley is not to be over i inch larger 
in diameter m its center; fifth, in having the crown other than two 
planes meetmg at the center; sixth, the use of any material on 
or in a belt, m addition to those necessarily used in the currying 
process, to keep them pliable or mcrease then- tractive quality 
should wholly depend upon the exigencies arising in the use of 
belts; non-use is safer than over-use; seventh, with reference to 
the lacing of belts, it seems to be a good practice to cut the ends 
to a convex shape by using a former, so that there may be a 
nearly uniform stress on the lacing through the center as conr- 
pared with the edges. For a belt 10 inches wide, the center of 
each end should recede j\ inch. 

Lacing of Belts. - In punching a belt for lacing, use an oval 
punch, the longer diameter of the punch being parallel with the 
sides of the belt. Punch two rows of holes in each end, placed 
zigzag. In a 3-mch belt there should be four holes in each end — 
two m each row. . In a 6-inch belt, seven holes - four in the row 
nearest the end. A 10-in. belt should have nine holes. The 
edge of the holes should not come nearer than f inch from the sides 
nor i mch from the ends of the belt. The second row should be 
at least If mches from the end. On wide belts these distances 
should be even a little greater. 

Begin to lace in the center of the belt and take care to keep the 
ends exactly in line, and to lace both sides with equal tightness. 
The lacmg should not be crossed on the side of the belt that runs 
next the pulley. In taking up belts, observe the same rules as m 
putting on new ones. 

Setting a Belt on Quarter-twist. - A belt must run squarely 
on to the pulley. To connect with a belt two horizontal shafts 



292 



The Science of Knitting 



at right angles with each other, say an engine-shaft near the floor 
with a line attached to the ceiling, will require a quarter-turn. 
First, ascertain the central point on the face of each pulley at the 
extremity of the horizontal diameter where the belt will leave 
the pulley, and then set that point on the driven pulley plumb 
over the corresponding point on the driver. This will cause 
the belt to run squarely on to each pulley, and it will leave at an 
angle greater or less, according to the size of the pulleys and their 
distance from each other. 

In quarter-twist belts, in order that the belt may remain on 
the pulleys, the central plane on each pulley must pass through 
the point of delivery of the other pulley. This arrangement does 
not admit of reversed motion. 

To find the Length of Belt required for two given Pulleys. — 
When the length cannot be measured directly by a tape-line 
the following approximate rule may be used: Add the diameter 
of the two pulleys together, divide the sum by 2, and multiply 
the quotient by 3j, and add the product to twice the distance 
between the centers of the shafts. 



ANALOGIES BETWEEN THE FLOW OF WATER AND 
ELECTRICITY 



Water 

Head, difference of level, in 
feet. 

Difference of pressure, lbs. per 
sq. in. 

Resistance of pipes, apertures, 
etc., increases with length of 
pipe, with contractions, 
roughness, etc.; decreases 
with increase of sectional 
area. 

Rate of flow, as cubic ft. per 
second, gallons per min., 
etc., or volume divided by 
the time. In the mining re- 
gions sometimes expressed 
in "miners' inches." 



Electricity 

Volts; electro-motive force; dif- 
ference of potential; E. or 
E.M.F. 

Ohms, resistance, R. Increases 
directly as the length of the 
conductor or wire and in- 
versely as its sectional area, 
R (X) I -^ s. It varies with 
the nature of the conductor. 

I'Amperes: current; current 
strength; intensity of current ; 
rate of flow; 1 ampere = 1 

i coulomb per second. 

volts , E 



Amperes = 
IR. 



ohms' ^ R' ^ 



Analogies Between the Flow of Water and Electricity 293 



Water 
Quantity, usually measured in 
cubic ft. or gallons, but is 
also equivalent to rate of 
flow X time, as cu. ft. per 
second for so many hours. 



Electricity 



Work, or energy, measured in 
foot-pounds ; product of 
weight of falling water into 
height of fall; in pumping, 
product of quantity in cubic 
feet into the pressure in lbs. 
per square foot against 
which the water is pumped. 



Power, rate of work. Horse 
power = ft. -lbs. of work in 
1 min. -r- 33,000. In water 
flowing in pipes, rate of flow 
in cu. ft. per second X re- 
sistance to the flow in lbs. 
per sq. ft. -^ 550. 



Coulomb, unit of quantity, 
Q, = rate of flow X time, as 
ampere-seconds. 1 ampere- 
hour = 3600 coulombs. 

'Joule, volt-coulomb, W, the 
unit of work, = product of 
quantity by the electro-mo- 
tive force = volt-ampere- 
second. 1 joule = 0.7373 
■^ foot-pound. 
If C (amperes) = rate of flow, 
and E (volts) = difference of 
pressure between two points 
in a circuit, energy expended 
= lEt, = PRt. 

CWatt, unit of power, P, = 
volts X amperes, = current 
or rate of flow X difference 

-{ of potential. 
1 watt = 0.7373 foot-pound- 
per sec. = 1/746 of a horse 
power. 



294 



The Science of Knitting 



TABLE OF ELECTRICAL HORSE-POWERS. 

Formula: - °^^^ X Amperes ^ ^ ^^ ^^ 1 volt ampere = .0013405 H.P. 
74o 







Read amperes at top and volts at side 


or vice versa. 
















Volts or Amperes. 


Is 












1 


10 


20 


30 


40 


60 


60 


70 


80 


90 


100 


110 


120 


1 


.00134 


.0134 


.0268 


.0402 


.0536 


.0670 


.0804 


.0938 


.1072 


.1206 


.1341 


.1475 


.1609 


2 


.00268 


.0268 


.0536 


.0804 


.1072 


.1341 


.1609 


.1877 


.2145 


.2413 


.2681 


.2949 


.3217 


3 


.00402 


.0402 


.0804 


.1206 


.1609 


.2011 


.2413 


.2815 


.3217 


.3619 


.4022 


.4424 


.4826 


4 


.00536 


.0536 


.1072 


.1609 


.2145 


.2681 


.3217 


3753 


.4290 


4826 


.5362 


.5898 


.6434 


5 


.00670 


.0670 


.1341 


.2011 


.2681 


.3351 


.4022 


.4692 


.5362 


.6032 


.6703 


.7373 


•8043 


6 


.00804 


.0804 


.1609 


.2413 


.3217 


.4022 


.4826 


.5630 


.6434 


.7239 


.8043 


.8847 


.9652 


7 


.00938 


.0938 


.1877 


.2815 


.3753 


.4692 


.5630 


.6568 


.7507 


.8445 


.9384 


1.032 


1.126 


8 


.01072 


.1072 


.2145 


.3217 


.4290 


.5362 


.6434 


.7507 


.8579 


.9652 


1.072 


1.180 


1.287 


9 


.01206 


.1206 


.2413 


.3619 


.4826 


.6032 


.7239 


.8445 


.9652 


1.086 


1.206 


1.327 


1.448 


10 


.01341 


.1341 


.2681 


.4022 


.5362 


.6703 


.8043 


.9383 


1.072 


1.206 


1.341 


1.475 


1.609 


11 


.01475 


.1475 


.2949 


.4424 


.5898 


.7373 


.8847 


1.032 


1.180 


1.327 


1.475 


1.622 


1.769 


12 


.01609 


.1609 


.3217 


.4826 


.6434 


.8043 


.9652 


1.126 


1.287 


1.448 


1.609 


1.769 


1.930 


13 


.01743 


.1743 


.3485 


.5228 


.6970 


.8713 


1.046 


1.220 


1.394 


1.568 


1.743 


1.917 


2.091 


14 


.01877 


.1877 


.3753 


.5630 


.7507 


.9384 


1.126 


1.314 


1.501 


1.689 


1.877 


2.064 


2.252 


15 


.02011 


.2011 


.4022 


.6032 


.8043 


1.005 


1.206 


1.408 


1.609 


1.810 


2.011 


2.212 


2.413 


16 


.02145 


.2145 


.4290 


.6434 


.8579 


1.072 


1.287 


1.501 


1.716 


1.930 


2.145 


2.359 


2.574 


17 


.02279 


.2279 


.4558 


.6837 


.9115 


1.139 


1.367 


1.595 


1.823 


2.051 


2.279 


2.507 


2.735 


18 


.02413 


.2413 


.4826 


.7239 


.9652 


1.206 


1.448 


1.689 


1.930 


2.172 


2.413 


2.654 


2.895 


19 


.02547 


.2547 


.5094 


.7641 


1.019 


1.273 


1.528 


1.783 


2.037 


2 292 


2.547 


2.801 


3.056 


20 


.02681 


.2681 


.6362 


.8043 


1.072 


1.340 


1.609 


1.877 


2.145 


2.413 


2.681 


2.949 


3.217 


21 


.02815 


.2815 


.5630 


.8445 


1.126 


1.408 


1.689 


1.971 


2.252 


2.533 


2.815 


3.097 


3.378 


22 


.02949 


.2949 


.5898 


.8847 


1.180 


1.475 


1.769 


2.064 


2.359 


2.654 


2.949 


3.244 


3.539 


23 


.03083 


.3083 


.6166 


.9249 


1.233 


1.542 


1.850 


2.158 


2.467 


2.775 


3.083 


3.391 


3.700 


24 


.03217 


.3217 


.6434 


.9652 


1.287 


1.609 


1.930 


2.252 


2.574 


2.895 


3.217 


3.539 


3.861 


25 


.03351 


.3351 


.6703 


1.005 


1.341 


1.676 


2.011 


2.346 


2.681 


3.016 


3.351 


3.686 


4.022 


26 


.03485 


.3485 


.6971 


1.046 


1.394 


1.743 


2.091 


2.440 


2.788 


3.137 


3.485 


3.834 


4.182 


27 


.03619 


.3619 


.7239 


1.086 


1.448 


1.810 


2.172 


2.534 


2.895 


3.257 


3.619 


3.981 


4.343 


28 


.03753 


.3753 


.7507 


1.126 


1.501 


1.877 


2.252 


2.627 


3.003 


3.378 


3.753 


4.129 


4.504 


29 


.03887 


.3887 


.7775 


1.166 


1.555 


1.944 


2.332 


2.721 


3.110 


3.499 


3.887 


4.276 


4.665 


30 


.04022 


.4022 


.8043 


1.206 


1.609 


2.011 


2.413 


2.815 


3.217 


3.619 


4.022 


4.424 


4.826 


31 


.04156 


.4156 


.8311 


1.247 


1.662 


2.078 


2.493 


2.909 


3.324 


3.740 


4.156 


4.571 


4.987 


32 


.04290 


.4290 


.8579 


1.287 


1.716 


2.145 


2.574 


3.003 


3.432 


3.861 


4.290 


4.719 


5.148 


33 


.04424 


.4424 


.8847 


1.327 


1.769 


2.212 


2.654 


3.097 


3.539 


3.986 


4.424 


4.866 


5.308 


34 


.04558 


.4558 


.9115 


1.367 


1.823 


2.279 


2.735 


3.190 


3.646 


4.102 


4.558 


5.013 


5.469 


35 


.04692 


.4692 


.9384 


1.408 


1.877 


2.346 


2.815 


3.284 


3.753 


4.223 


4.692 


5.161 


5.630 


40 


.05362 


.5362 


1.072 


1.609 


2.145 


2.681 


3.217 


3.753 


4 290 


4.826 


5.363 


5.898 


6.434 


45 


.06032 


.6032 


1.206 


1.810 


2.413 


3.016 


3.619 


4.223 


4.826 


5.439 


6.032 


6.635 


7.239 


fiO 


.06703 


.6703 


1.341 


2.011 


2.681 


3.351 


4.022 


4.692 


5.362 


6.032 


6.703 


7.373 


8.043 


55 


.07373 


.7373 


1.475 


2.212 


2.949 


3.686 


4.424 


5.161 


5.898 


6.635 


7.373 


8.110 


8.847 


60 


.08043 


.8043 


1.609 


2.413 


3.217 


4.022 


4.826 


5.630 


6.434 


7.239 


8.043 


8.047 


9.652 


65 


.08713 


.8713 


1.743 


2.614 


3.485 


4.357 


5.228 


6.099 


6.970 


7.842 


8.713 


9.584 


10.46 


70 


.09384 


.9384 


1.877 


2.815 


3.753 


4.692 


5.630 


6.568 


7.507 


8.445 


9.384 


10.32 


11.26' 


75 


.10054 


1.005 


2.011 


3.016 


4.021 


5.027 


6.032 


7.037 


8.043 


9.048 


10.05 


11.06 


12.06 


80 


.10724 


1.072 


2.145 


3.217 


4.290 


5.362 


6.434 


7.507 


8.579 


9.652 


10.72 


11.80 


12.87 


85 


.11394 


1.139 


2.279 


3.418 


4.558 


5.697 


6.836 


7.976 


9.115 


10.26 


11.39 


12.53 


13.67 


90 


.12065 


1.206 


2.413 


3.619 


4.826 


6.032 


7.239 


8.445 


9.652 


10.86 


12.06 


13.27 


14.48 


95 


.12735 


1.273 


2.547 


3.820 


5.094 


6.367 


7.641 


8.914 


10.18 


11.46 


12.73 


14.01 


15.28 


100 


.13405 


1.341 


2.681 


4.022 


5.362 


6.703 


8.043 


9.384 


10.72 


12.06 


13.41 


14.75 


16.09 


200 


.26810 


2.681 


5.362 


8.043 


10.72 


13.41 


16.09 


18.77 


21.45 


24.13 


26.81 


29.49 


32.17 


300 


.40215 


4.022 


8.043 


12.06 


16.09 


20.11 


24.13 


28.15 


32.17 


36.19 


40.22 


44.24 


48.26 


400 


.53620 


5.362 


10.72 


16.09 


21.45 


26.81 


32.17 


37.53 


42.90 


48.26 


53.62 


58.98 


64.34 


600 


.67025 


6.703 


13.41 


20.11 


26.81 


33.51 


40.22 


46.92 


.53.82 


60.32 


67.03 


73.73 


80.43 


600 


.80430 


8.043 


16.09 


24.13 


32.17 


40.22 


48.26 


66.30 


64.34 


72.39 


80.43 


88.47 


96.52 


700 


.93835 


9.384 


18.77 


28.15 


37.53 


46.92 


56.30 


65.68 


75.07 


84.45 


93.84 


103.2 


112.6 


800 


1.0724 


10.72 


21.45 


32.17 


42.90 


53.62 


64.34 


75.07 


85.79 


96.52 


107.2 


118.0 


128.7 


900 


1.2065 


12.06 


24.13 


36.19 


48.26 


60.32 


72.39 


84.45 


96.52 


108.6 


120.6 


132.7 


144.8 


1.000 


1.3405 


13.41 


26.81 


40.22 


53.62 


67.03 


80.43 


93.84 


107.2 


120.6 


134.1 


147.5 


160.9 


2,000 


2.6810 


26.81 


53.62 


80.43 


107.2 


134.1 


160.9 


187.7 


214.5 


241.3 


268.1 


294.9 


321.7 


3,000 


4.0215 


40.22 


80.43 


120.6 


160.9 


201.1 


241.3 


281.5 


321.7 


361.9 


402.2 


442.4 


482.6 


4,000 


5.3620 


53.62 


107.2 


160.9 


214.5 


268.1 


321.7 


375.3 


429.0 


482.6 


536.2 


589.8 


643.4 


5,000 


6.7025 


67.03 


134.1 


201.1 


268 1 


335 1 


402.2 


469.2 


536.2 


603.2 


670.3 


737.3 


804.3 


6,000 


8.0430 


80.43 


160.9 


241.3 


321.7 


402.2 


482.6 


563.0 


643.4 


723.9 


804.3 


884.7 


965.3 


7,000 


9.3835 


93.84 


187.7 


281.5 


375.3 


469.2 


563.0 


656.8 


750.7 


844.5 


938.4 


1032 


1126 


8.000 


10.724 


107.2 


214.5 


321.7 


429.0 


536.2 


643.4 


7.50.7 


857.9 


965.2 


1072 


1180 


1287 


9,000 


12.065 


120.6 


241.3 


361.9 


482.6 


603.2 


723.9 


844.5 


965.2 


1086 


1206 


1327 


1448 


10,000 


13.405 


134.1 


268.1 


402.2 


536.2 


670.3 


804.3 


938.3 


1072 


1206 


1341 


1475 


1609 



INDEX 

Contents in serial order and illustrations and tables in alphabetical order are 
listed in front of book. 

This index includes topics, designated by heavy figures, illustrations and 
tables. 

A 

Page 

Abbreviations 2 

Adapting, a design to a range of cylinder sizes 243 

the pattern to different presser positions 241 

Adjusting in general 160 

Adjusting the yarn carrier j 171 

Analogies between the flow of water and electricity 292 

Analysis of designs (see also Design). 

determining, direction of lap 236 

height 234 

knitting motion . 236 

possible number of feeds, table 235~ 

width 233 

diagram of sample design, illustration 235 

dimensions of sample design 235 

marking limiting stitches 234 

methods 232 

numbers of needles to dupUcate sample, table 237 

structure of sample 235 

Areas of circles, table 280 

B 

Backing (see Fleeced goods). 

Backward motion 1 

Belt, leather, power transmission, table 289 

Bobbin, Bobbins, delivery twists yarn 103 

how wound 103 

number, effect on lost time 96-255-260 

winder, upright, capacity, table 115 

yarn delivery, illustration 104 

295 



296 Index 

Page 

Boiler, floor-space allotment, table 118 

discussion 120 

Brief chronological list of important knitting inventions. . . 265 

Bur, Burs, cast-off 147 

compared with cast-off jack 99 

invention, table 265 

lander 146 

sinker 140 

two sinkers for two-thread work 99 



C 

Calculation, Calculations (see also Example and Deri- 
vations), 
adapting a design to a given number of needles . . 241-242 

design, figure 227 

Cam, Cams, names 160 

race, double 158 

Cardigan fabric, variation from regular width 58 

Carding, floor-space allotment, discussion 119 

table 118 

Carrier, yarn, adjusting . 171 

Cast-off, bur 147 

comparison of jack and rotary 99 

Causes of lost time 70 

Change of yarn with corresponding change of stitch 261 

Circumferences of circles, table 280 

of Wildman ribbers at back of needles, table 184 

Clearing tucks (see Design and Pattern wheel). 

Clockwise motion, definition 1 

Coal for knitting miUs, consumption per set 117 

Coils (see also Yarn diameter). 

determination, illustration 13 

per inch and haK-inch, table , 196 

Conditions for high needle velocity 67 

Cone, Cones, dehvery twists yarn 103 

how wound 103 

number, effect on lost time 96-255-260 

winder, Nutaper, capacity, table 114 

yarn dehvery, illustration 104 

Constant, definition 1 



Index 297 

Page 
Convention, Conventions. 

constant, general 1 

design 216 

direction, anticlockwise 1 

backward 1 

clockwise 1 

forward 1 

left-hand 1 

right-hand 1 

fabric, bottom 15 ^ 

fiat, back 19 

face 19 

loop-wheel, fundamental relations, table .... 45 

length 15 

motion of knitting, table 204 

rib, latch-needle, fundamental relations, table. ) . 36 

top 15 

width 15 ^ 

loop, bottom 15 

held 212 

top 15 

tuck 212 

machine, cut (needle spacing) 1 

motion, table 204 

pattern 210-211 

speed for automatic ribbers 67 

stitch, tuck 212 

variable, general 1 

Cost, floor-space maintenance 121-249 

knitting machinery, per set 117 

mill buildings, per set 117 

Count, Counts, Constant-length system 187 

constant-weight system 187 

cotton 187 

definitions, table 188 

importance of topic 9 

grain 187 

importance of topic 9 

transformation between systems 187 

rules 193 

table 194 



298 Index 

Page 

Count, Counts, transformation within systems 188 

used for different kinds of yarns 189 

importance of topic .... 9 

where used 190 

Course, Courses, definition 14 

first 15 

length 15 

number in tuck wale 156 

per hour, determination 75 

size, comparison 18 

width 18 

Courses per inch, and wales, product dependent on stitches. 29 

compared with stitches per foot to describe fabric ... 70 

formula, importance of 43 

from other fabric dimensions, formula 93 

maximum number, tables 40-48 

regular fabrics, relation to wales 32 

relation to wales for stitches constant and yarn 

variable 27 

for yarn variable, illustration 28 

Cube, Cubes, table 278 

roots, table 278 

Cut, Cuts (of machine) (see also Gauge and Needles per inch) . 

effect on economy 255 

formula, importance of 41 

latch-needle rib, relation to yarn 49 

relation to yarn, illustration 50 

meanings 1 

measured on cam surface, table 175 

on needle line, table 130 

of hosiery machines and ribbers 138-129 

range of fabric from 138 

relation, to gauge 134 

formula 124 

to needle difference between machine 

sizes 243 

to yarn for different machines, table . 53 

to yarn number 23-25 

to correspond to given conditions 257 

Cut (of yarn) (see also Yarn and Count). 

conflict with machine cut 1 



Index 299 
D 

Page 

Definition, Definitions, anticlockwise 1 

cams 160 

clockwise 1 

constant 1 

course 14 

cut (needle spacing) 124 

design 216 

diametral revolutions 2 

field 216 

figure 216 

gauge (needle spacing) 2-124 

table 127 

gauge (needle thickness) 2 

geometric terms 286 

held loop 212 

knitting 14 

left-hand motion 1 

twist 102 

pattern 21 L 

power 277 

right-hand motion 1 

twist 101 

stitch, stitches 15 

per foot of yarn 19 

rib 21 

tuck loop 212 

stitch 212 

variable 1 

wale 15 

work 277 

yarn counts, table 188 

Derivation, Unear yards per hour, formula 75 

of cut for given conditions 258 

of diameter of yarn from yarn-cut-rule constant 55 

of yarn number from given conditions 257 

relation of cut and coils 23 

of diameter of yarn to needle spacing 55 

of gauge and cut 134 

of yarn, diameter and cut 23 



300 Index 

Page 

Derivation, relation of yarn number and cut 25 

numbers for rib and flat machines 125 

single equivalent of two or more yarns 1918 

square yard production 78 

weight-per-square-yard formula 92 

width of fabric 17 

yarn number for fabric as wide as straight machine. . . 63 
Design, Designs (see Analysis of Designs, Pattern, Pat- 
tern wheel). 

adaptable cy Under sizes 244 

adaptation of pattern to different presser positions 241 

to a given number of needles 241 

to a range of cyUnder sizes 243 

arrangement, inclination 227 

calculations 227 

changing needles to clear tucks 245 

size of presser to clear tucks 245 

condition for 220 

conversion of diagram into strip pattern, illustration . . . 238 

definition 216 

diagram 231 

without plain pressers 246 

double-cam-race pattern rules 158 

effect of increasing needles 221 

effect of lap of more than one division, illustrations. . . . 222 

of motion and lap, table 226 

of needle changes of more than one division 221 

of reversal of lap, illustrations 222 

of motion, illustrations 222 

of reversing motion 220 

exception to rule, illustrations 247-248 

figure and field 216 

fully formed, illustrations 218-219 

inchned, illustrations 218-219 

formation of strip pattern to represent pattern wheel. . . 239 

general fundamental rule 221 

generally reduced in modification 242 

height 227-230 

improper pattern wheel 245 

inversion of figure 237 

length of pattern 229 



Index 301 

Page 

Design, long-and-short-latch pattern rules 157 

needles decreased 219 

not readily changed 227 

numerical method 223 

illustrations 225 

paper-strip method, advantages 223 

pattern wheel represented by strip pattern, illustrations 240 

possible numbers of feeds, table 235 

of needles, table 237 

proof of strip pattern 239 

range 224 

real and apparent 224 

reversal of the color of the figure 216 

rule for selection of lap 237 

"sample, illustration 232 

selection of lap j, 236 

self-clearing pattern wheel 244 

several seK-clearing pattern wheels 246 

strip pattern, winding 217 

stripes, incUned, illustrations 218-219 

mixed, illustrations 218-219 

vertical, illustrations 218-219 

successive, incUnation 227 

terminal courses should be different 231 

Designing (see also Design, Pattern, Pattern wheel. Stitch). 

causes of figure changes 210 

definition of pattern 210 

learning 216 

with pattern wheels, importance of topic 10 

Determining weight per square yard by weighing 95 

Diagram of design (see also Design and Pattern wheel). 

from a sample, illustration 235 

of design without plain presser 246 

representation of plain and tuck courses 231 

terminal courses should be different 231 

Diameter, of machine, effect on economy 252 

of yarn (see Yarn). 

Diameters of Wildman ribbers from back to back of cyhn- 

der needles, table 184 

Diametral revolutions and yarn velocity, table 159 

constant 67 



302 Index 

Page 

Diametral revolutions and yarn velocity, defined 2-66 

for automatic work on ribbers 67 

loop-wheel machine, formula 45 

rib machine, formula 36 

Difference between yarn velocity and needle velocity, 

table 159 

Dimensions, of regular rib fabrics, illustration 270 

of rib fabric, yarn variable, illustration 269 

Direction, of lap (see Analysis and Design) . 
of motion (see Motion), 
of twist in fabric (see Fabric), 
of twist in yarn (see Yarn). 

Drying, floor-space allotment, table 118 

discussion 120 

heat requirement - 117 

Duplication of a sample design (see Design). 



Economics of knitting 249 

Electricity, and flow of water, analogies 292 

power for rib-knitting machinery, table 122 

for different volts and amperes, table 294 

Element of fabric 14 

Elements of knitting 14 

Engine, floor-space allotment, table 118 

Equivalent, of two or more yarns 192 

of two yarns, table 198 

Example, approximate cut of ribbers and footers, table .... 129 

change in production produced by change of cut .... 255 

cut to correspond to given conditions 257 

derivation of yarn-rule constant 197 

diametral revolutions 2-66-67 

dram-silk number transformed to cotton 193 

effect of yarn change on fabric 259 

extent of yarn twist 102 

loss of time per feed 255-262 

per machine 260 

minimum weight per square yard 264 

needle difference between machine sizes 243 



Index 303 

Page 

Example, New Hampshire number transformed to Cohoes 

number 193 

pounds production rib . • 260 

presser diameter for 180 needles 206 

production, hanks 69 

in pounds from coils 44 

pounds 69-260 

square yards 78 

relation of fabric dimensions, yarn variable 31 

of wales and courses for yarn variable 27 

of yarn numbers for rib- and fiat-work machines . 125 
relative length of yarn used, same cut and needle 

velocity 87 

single equivalent of two yarns 71-193 

speed determination from diametral revolutions . . . 66-67 

stitch effects on production and fabric : 259 

the second of two yarns equivalent to a given single 

yarn 193 

weight, of knit goods, yarn variable 43 

per square yard, determination by weighing .... 95 

yarn, number to correspond to given conditions 257 

transformation, between systems 188 

within systems 188 

Examples solved with the aid of tables. 

approximate cut of ribbers and footers 128 

gauge transformations 127 

cut for a given weight per yard 92 

production, Unear yards 68-75 

loop-wheel, pounds from hanks 74 

pounds, stitches regular 71 

rib, pounds from hanks, stitches regular 71 

pounds, stitches regular 71 

rib-tops 82 

square yards 68 

for wales, courses and cut known . . 80 

needles, speed and yarn known 80 

two-thread, two methods 71-72 

weight per square yard of fiat fabric 92 

Explanation of convenient equations for determining the 

number of yarn 190 

of formulas for regular rib fabrics 36 



304 Index 

Page 

Explanation of regular flat-fabric formulas 45 

of yarn-transformation table 193 

F 

Fabric, Fabrics (see also Production). 

as wide as machine, formulas, table 56 

bottom, definition 15 

changing characteristics 26 

characteristics, how determined 29 

circular, ribbon structure illustrated 202 

determination of good fabric 26 

distortion due to tuck stitches 213 

first case, stitches constant, yarn variable 27 

flat, back, distinguished 19 

back, illustration 17 

edges, curhng tendency of flat and rib 20 

elasticity, flat and rib compared 20 

face, distinguished 19-201 

illustration 16 

loop-wheel, hanks, table 74 

raveling, flat and rib compared 20 

regular, dimensions, table 48 

fundamental formulas 45 

general formulas 46-47 

rule for twist 107 

structure, comparison of flat and rib 19 

thickness per inch, table 48 

thicknesses per inch, table 48 

twist caused by yarn twist 107 

importance of topic 9 

with self -feeding needles 101 

weight per square yard, table 90 

width, flat and rib compared 20 

formula for weight per yard, importance 43 

foundation principles 26 

from different machines, width variation 58 

length, defined 15 

of yarn in square yard, stitches constant 31 

minimum weight per square yard 363 

illustration 264 



Index 305 

Page 

Fabric, motion, classified, table 204 

conventions 199-201 

of different yarn size but same characteristics 21 

of same yarn size but different characteristics 22 

open work, invention, table 265 

pattern 199 

production, topic 66 

range from the same gauge or cut, illustrations 138 

importance of topic ... 7 

regular, relations, illustration 33 

relation of wales and courses 32 

of width and height, yam variable 30 

illustration 30 

relative width from different machines, rule 66 

rib, dimensions, yarn variable, illustration 269 

edges, curling tendency of flat and rib ] 20 

elasticity, flat and rib compared 20 

illustration ; 19-21 

raveling, flat and rib compared 20 

regular, dimensions 40 

illustrations 27(L 

explanation of formulas 36 

fundamental formulas 36 

general formulas 38-39 

structure, comparison of flat and rib 19 

thicknesses per inch, table 36 

thickness, table 40 

twist, illustration 112 

importance of topic 9 

weight per square yard, table 90 

width, flat and rib compared 20 

second case, yarn constant, stitches variable 32 

stitches per pound 92 

per square yard, formula, derivation 89-92 

tight rib illustration 21 

strength 274 

summary regarding twist, importance of topic 9 

theory 266 

importance of topic 11 

third case, yarn diameter inversely proportional 

to stitches 32 



306 Index 

Page 

Fabric, three general cases 26 

top, defined 15-199 

twist, illustration 107 

minor causes Ill 

not dependent on machine motion Ill 

summary 113 

various, width variation from rule 58 

weight per square yard formula 92-93 

for different yarn counts 94 

stitches constant 32 

width, defined 15-17 

formulas, various 17 

from different machines, importance of topic ... 7 

table 65 

topic 63 

of flattened tube, table 59-62 

topic 57 

various formulas 18 

Factors of production, general 66 

linear yards 70 

Feeds and pattern divisions for 24 courses, table 235 

effect on economy 70-255-260 

maximum number 67 

number in set 116 

to produce a given design, table 235 

Field, of design, definition 216 

Figure designing with pattern wheels 199 

definition 216 

dimensions 235 

inversion. 237 

inverted by lap and motion, table 226 

structure 235 

tuck, illustration 232 

white block in mixed field, illustration 215 

Finishing and seaming, floor-space allotment, table 118 

discussion 120 

required proportion of mill power, table 123 

First course 15 

Fleeced goods, flat, invention, table (see also Machine, 

loop-wheel) . . . .' 265 

production, method of calculating 74 



Index 307 

Page 

Fleeced goods, flat, yarn for different gauges 138 

table 139 

Floor-space in knitting mills, allotment, conclusions 121 

per set, explanation 119 

cost of maintenance 121 

table 118 

Footer (see Machine, automatic hosiery). 

Formation of loop 15 

Formula, Formulas (see also Derivations). 

courses, from other fabric dimensions 93 

cut, relation to coils 23 

to gauge 125 

to needle spacing 23 

diameter of yarn for fabric as wide as straight 

machine 63 

fabric, fabrics, fiat, regular, fundamental, table 45 

regular 271 

rib, regular, fundamental, table 36 

stitches constant and yarn variable 268 

weight, minimum per square yard 264 

width in various terms 17 - 

of flattened tube in various terms 18 

production, relative for proportional change of 

yarn and stitch 262 

rib, ten hours 259 

without constants 252-261 

stitches per foot from other fabric dimensions 93 

rib, maximum number 186 

minimum number 186 

'per pound of fabric 92 

per square inch, relation to yam number .... 81 

per square yard of fabric 89-92 ■ 

wales, from other fabric dimensions 93 

weight per square yard for different yarn counts .... 94 

importance of topic 8 

single thread 92 

two-thread, different stitch ... 93 

same stitch 93 

width of fabric equal to machine width, table 56 

winder capacity, Nutaper, table 114 

upright, bobbin, table 115 



308 Index 

Formula, yarn, diameter, from the yarn-cut rule 55 

relation to cut 23 

to needle spacing 23 

number, relation to yarn size, illustration 24 

for fabric as wide as straight machine . 63-65 
for fabric width equal to machine diam- 
eter 64-65 

from other fabric dimensions 93 

relation to gauge for backing, loop-wheel 139 

to latch-needle cut, illustration 50 

to spring-needle gauge, illustra- 
tion 52 

table 191 

relation of number and cut 25 

and diameter 25 

to cut for different counts 195 

to gauge for different counts 195 

single equivalent of two, importance 10 

of two or more 192 

the second of two equivalent to a given single 

yarn 192 

Forward motion defined 1 

Functions, trigonometric, natural, table 282 

G 

Garments, weight per dozen, stitches constant 32 

Gauge (needle spacing) definitions, table 127 

different standards 125 

needles per inch, table 126 

explanation : 2 

range of fabrics from 138 

relation to cut 124 

to yarn for different machines, table 53 

spring-needle loop-wheel, relation to yarn 52 

Gauge (needle thickness) explanation 2 

H 

Hanger friction 122 

Hanks, explanation 24 

production, factors 70 



Index 309 

Page 

Hanks, production, latch-needle rib, table 73 

loop-wheel flat, table 74 

Heat for knitting mills, cost per set 117 

Height (see the subject of which the height is desired). 

Help, effect on economy 254 

Hooking fabric on ribber 164 

Horse power (see Power). 

I 

Illustrations (see the subject in this index, also separate 
hst at front of book). 

Incandescent mantle pattern 155 

Inch, fractions, decimal equivalents, table 277 

Inventions, knitting, important, table 265 

Inventors, knitting, important, table 265 

Inversion of tuck figure 237 

J 

Jack, cast-off, comparison with rotary cast-off 99 

sinker bur, inventions, table 265 

sinker machine (see Machine). 

K 

Knitting and winding, floor-space allotment, table 118 

definition 14 

economics 249 

importance of topic 11 

elements, importance of topic 5 

flat, trouble, cause and remedy 150 

floor-space, discussion 119 

inventions, brief chronological hst 265 

machine, expense 250 

operator, expense 251 

required proportion of mill power, table 123 

rib, trouble, cause and remedy 171 

rules, practical variations, importance of topic 6 

space, expense 249 

yarn damage, expense 250 



310 Index 

L 

Lander bur j^g 

Lap (see Pattern, Analysis and Design). 

Left-hand motion defined i 

twist, illustration (see also Fabric and Yarn) 102 

explanation 2Q2 

Length (see the subject of which the length is desired). 
Linear yard (see Yard, linear). 

Locating sources of trouble in rib-knitting 167 

Loop, Loops, bottom n^ 

distortion caused by yarn twist 105 

floated 213 

formation 15 

held, illustration 211-212-213 

must be cleared 214 

length, relation to stitches per foot 19 

needle 15 

illustration iq 

normal, illustration . 106 

sinker 15 

illustration 16 

structure, influenced by yarn resilience 35 

top-- • 15 

tuck, is kept out of face of fabric 214 

single and double, illustration 212 

illustration 211 

two-thread, on latch needle, illustration 100 

on spring needle, illustration 97 

which causes left-hand- twist fabric, illustration 106 

right-hand-twist fabric, illustration ... 106 

Lost time, causes of 70 

effect of change in the number of feeds 255-260 

in two-thread work due to the extra threads. . . 96 



M 

Machine, Machines (see also Ribber). 

adjusting in general 160 

automatic hosiery, convenient cut calculations 138 

fabric width, proportion of diameter, table 65 



Index 311 



Machine, fabric width, variation from theoretical 58 

yarn-cut rule, similarity to loop-wheel rule 49 

table 53 

yarn diameter, for fabric width equal to machine 

diameter 64 

proportion of needle spacing, table ; . . . 56 

illustration ... 57 
yarn number, for fabric width equal to machine 

diameter 64 

circular latch-needle for flat work. 

fabric width, proportion of machine diameter, 

table 65 

variation from theoretical 58 

production, linear yards, table 76 

square yards, needles, speed and yarn 

known, table 81 

wales and courses known, table 79 

yarn-cut rule, table 53 

yarn diameter for fabric width equal to machine 

diameter 64 

proportion of needle spacing, illustration 57 

table 56 

number for fabric width equal to machine 

diameter 64 

circular spring-needle loop-wheel. 

cast-off bur 147 

diametral revolutions per minute 49 

fabric, dimensions, table 48 

width, variation from rule 58 

fundamental formulas, regular fabric 45 

gauge, table 126 

general formulas, table 46-47 

invention, table 265 

knitting motion classified, table 204 

lander bur 146 

length of needle line filled by one foot of yarn ... 70 

needle, needles, dimensions and data, table 149 

in cylinder, table 154 

^^elocity 159 

with two-thread loops, illustration 97 

number in set 116 



312 Index 

Page 
Machine, circular spring-needle loop-wheel, power require- 
ment, table 123 

production, comparison with rib machines, 

tables 85-87-88 

in hanks, table 74 

linear yards, table 76 

relative to latch-needle rib machine 84 

square yards, needles, speed and yarn 

known, table 81 

wales and courses known, table .... 79 
proportion of yarn diameter to needle spacing, 

table 56 

sinker bur 140 

speed for balbriggan and for fleece 49 

trouble, cause and remedy 150 

weight of leaded needles per thousand, table .... 149 

width of flattened tube of fabric, table 59 

yarn-cut rule, table 53 

yarn-gauge rule, table 53 

yarn-gauge rule, illustration 52 

table 53 

yarn, for different gauges, table 129 

velocity 159 

circular spring-needle rib. 

fabric width, proportion of machine diameter, 

table 65 

production, linear yards, table 76 

square yards, for needles, speed, and yarn 

known, table 81 

wales and courses known, table 79 

yarn-cut rule, table 53 

yarn, diameter, for fabric width equal to ma- 
chine diameter 64 

proportion of needle spacing, illustration 57 

of needle spacing, table 56 

number, for fabric width equal to machine 

diameter 64 

diameter, effect on economy 252 

different, relative width of fabric 63 

effect on economy 254 

expense, knitting 250 

inventions, table 265 



Index 313 

Page 

Vlachine, motion, effect on fabric twist 108-111 

effect on yarn revolution in feeding Ill 

rib body, fabric width, variation from rule 58 

performance, table 185 

power 122 

shop, floor-space allotment, table 118 

straight jack-sinker. 

fabric width, proportion of diameter of machine, 

table * 65 

invention by WiUiam Lee, table 265 

method of casting-off compared with that of bur 99 

needle with two-thread loops 97 

production, linear yards, table 76 

yarn-cut rule, table 53 

yam-gauge rule, table 53 

yarn, diameter, for fabric as wide as machine, rule 63 

proportion of needle spacing, illustration 57 

of needle spacing, table 56 

number for fabric as wide as straight machine, 

rule 63 

warp, machine, invention, table 265 - 

course, definition 14 

which does not twist yarn, illustration 110 

which twists yarn, illustration 109 

Machinery, knitting mill, cost per set 117 

Measures, length, weight, work, power 277 

^lensuration, plane surfaces 386 

klill, Mills, knitting, buildings, cost per set 117 

coal consumption 117 

floor space 117 

table 118 

power requirements, table 122 

proportionate distribution of power, table 123 

water consumption 117 

klinimum weight per square yard 363 

►lotion, anti-clockwise, defined •, 1 

illustrated 200 

backward, defined 1 

clockwise, defined 1 

fabric, rule , 202 

forward, defined 1 



314 Index 

Pai 

Motion, knitting, table 2C 

conventions IS 

illustrations 2C 

determination from figured fabric 23 

left-hand, defined 

machine, effect on yarn revolution in feeding 11 

on fabric twist 11 

right-hand, defined 

winding, cone 10 

bobbin 10. 

Mule spindles, number per set 11' 

N 

Names of cams 16( 

Napping, floor-space allotment, discussion 12( 

table 11^ 

Needle, Needles. 

allowable change in leaded-needle machines 227 

cylinder, used to designate fineness of fabric or machine 21 

difference in number between cylinder sizes 24c 

double sets 2C| 

gauge (spacing) different standards, table 12C 

in pattern to duplicate a given design 241 

in Tompkins loop-wheel cylinders 154 

latch, average total circular travel, table 185 

vertical travel, table 185 

invention, table 265 

total reciprocations, table 185 

with double loop, illustration 100 

leaded, weight per thousand, table 149 

loop, definition 15 

number, changed to clear tucks 245 

in cylinder, adapted to designing 244 

to duplicate a sample, table 237 

per inch, effect on economy 255 

measured on cam surface, table 175 

on needle line, table 130 

of hosiery machines and ribbers 128 

simple calculations, table 129 

putting into ribber 161 



Index 315 

Page 

Needle, space, net, for different gauges, table 149 

spacing for different gauges, table 149 

proof of relation to yarn diameter 22 

relation to yarn diameter 22-53 

illustration 57 

is elastic 23 

table 56 

spring, dimensions and data, table 149 

with double loops, illustration 97 

twist in fabric produced by self-feeding needles 101 

with long and short latches 156 

dumber. Numbers (see also Yarn and Count). 

meaning in this book 1 

squares, cubes, square roots, cube roots 278 

Numerical method of designing ^23 

O 

>ffice, floor-space allotment, table 118 

Operating, loop-wheel machine (see Machine, loop-wheel). 

ribber (see Ribber). 

Operative expense, knitting 251 

P 

'acking, floor-space allotment 118 

'attern, Pattern (see also Pattern wheel and Designing). 

adapting to different presser positions 241 

definition 210 

derived from design, illustration 238 

designing 199 

exception to rule, illustrations 247-248 

lap, effect, table 226 

latch needle 153-203 

length, limitations 229 

strip, conversion into presser model 239 

proof 239 

representing pattern wheel, illustrations 240 

wheel, latch-needle, selector, description 207 

*attern wheel, spring needle. 

advantages of making in mill 206 

allowance over pitch diameter 207 



316 Index 

Pag 

Pattern wheel, and yarn relation 21( 

description 20t 

material 20J 

must count needles 20^ 

pitch diameter 20/ 

positions 20£ 

illustration 20t 

printing with needles 21C 

relation of diameter and cuts 206 

represented by paper ring 209 

by strip pattern 239 

illustrations 240 

self-clearing 244 

several 246 

diagram, illustration 246 

size, changed to clear tucks 245 

limitations 208 

relation to number of patterns 208 

special, where made 206 

strip, winding 217 

tip, to keep in position 207 

Performance of a latch-needle rib-body machine, table 185 

Picking, floor-space, relative to carding and spinning 119 

allotments, comparison 119 

table 118 

Plating (see also Two-thread knitting) 95 

Plush (see Fleeced goods). 
Pounds (see Production). 

Power, electrical, table 294 

for knitting mill, cost per set 117, 

table 122-123 

for spring-needle loop-wheel machines 123 

knitting machine, invention, table. 265 

proportionate distribution in a knitting mJll, table 123 

required by latch-needle rib machines, table 122 

by upright bobbin winder, table 122 

by various machines used in knitting mills 121 

transmitted by leather belt, table 289 

by shafting, table 288 

Practical variations from knitting rules 34 

Preface iii 



Index 317 

Presser (see also Pattern wheel). 

interference with lander bur I47 

plain, like raising cam 207 

positions, different, adaptation of pattern 241 

Production, dozen pairs per hour, rib tops, table 82 

factors gg 

hanks, how found jO 

loop-wheel flat fabric, table 74 

rib machine, example 7I 

table 73 

linear yards, example 75 

explanation of table 74 

factors 7Q 

table 76-77 

methods of calculating, subject 68 

hanks 59 

importance of topic 7 

pounds 69 

yards, linear 68 

square 68 

of circular knitting machines 6^ 

pounds, fleeced-underwear fabric, method of calcu- 
lating 74 

for corresponding change of yarn and stitch 261 

formula, importance 43 

of an average rib machine, table 185 

rib fabric, explanation of general table 70 

general table 72 

rib machine, 7.5 hours 252-261 

winder, Nutaper, table 114 

upright, bobbin, table II5 

relative, of different types of knitting machines 84 

importance. 8 

of rib and flat-work machines, tables 85-87-88 

rib-tops, table 02 

square yard, derivation 78 

example for table for cut known 80 

explanation of table for yarn, needles and 

speed known 80 

formula, importance 45 

how found 7q 



318 Index 

Page 

Production, square yard, stitches constant 31 

table, for cut known 79 

for yarn needles and speed known. .... 81 

total of an average rib machine 185 

two methods for two-thread work 71-72 

units 66 

Proportion of needle spacing to yarn diameter, table 56 

Putting needles into ribber 161 

R 

Range of fabrics from the same gauge or cut 138 

Raw stock, floor space allotment, table 118 

Regular fabrics (see Fabrics). 

Relation, Relations, of machine gauge and cut 124 

of the diameter of the yarn to the needle spacing .... 53 
of rib-fabric dimensions for stitches constant, illus- 
tration 269 

of yarn number and diameter and machine cut 24 

Relative production of different types of knitting machines. 84 
Revolutions (see also Diametral revolutions). 

per minute, effect on economy 252 

Rib fabric. Rib fabrics (see also Fabric). 

cardigan, width variation from rule 58 

elasticity, compared to flat 20 

hanks production table 73 

illustration of face 19 

non-curHng of edges 20 

pounds-production, explanation of table 70 

. table 72 

ravehng 20 

regular, dimensions, table 40 

explanation of formulas 36 

fundamental formulas 36 

general formulas, table 38-39 

relations, regular, illustration 270 

yarn variable, illustration 269 

structural difference from flat fabric 19 

tuck, width variation from rule 58 

twist, illustration 112 

importance of topic 9 



Index 319 

., » . Page 

Lib fabric twist, summary 113 

weight per square yard, explanation of table 92 

table 90-91 

width, compared to flat 20 

of flattened tube, table 59 

proportion of machine diameter, table 65 

topic 57 

variation from rule 5g 

ib stitch, dimensions (see also Stitch) 21 

illustration 21 

Jb tops, dozen pairs per hour, production table 82 

explanation of production table 82 

ibber. 

adjusting in general 160 

the yarn carrier 171 

circumferences, Wildman, at back of needles, table 184 

convenient method of calculating the cut i;28 

cut (see Cut). 

diameters, Wildman, back to back of needles, table .... 184 

diametral revolutions 36-67 

fabric width proportion of diameter, table 65 

variation from rule 58 

hooking-on fabric 164 

locating sources of trouble 167 

needle velocity, table I59 

patterns (see Patterns). 

power, table 122 

production, comparison with k)op-wheel machine, 

tables 85-87-88 

hnear yards, table 76 

production, relative to loop-wheel machine 84 

rib-tops, table 82-83 

square y^irds, needles, speed and yarn known, table 81 

wales, courses and cut known, table 79 

putting needles in 161 

stitch adjustment 168 

summary 170 

take-up 166 

yarn rule, table 53 

cut rule, chart, explanation 49 

illustration . 50 



320 Index 

Pag 

Ribber yarn, diameter, for fabric width equal to machine 

diameter, rule 6- 

proportion of needle spacing, illustration 5- 

table 5t; 

number for fabric width equal to machine diameter, 

formula . 64 

rule 6^ 

for different cuts, table 16c 

velocity, table 15^ 

Right-hand, applied to motion meaning ] 

twist (see Yarn and Fabrics). 
Rule, Rules (see also Formulas). 

adjustment of yarn carrier 171 

approximate cut of ribbers and footers 128 

designing, exception, illustrations 247 

direction of flat fabric twist, self-feeding needles 116 

of lap 237 

of rib-fabric twist 113 

of twist in yarn delivery 113 

extent of twist in yarn delivery 113 

fabric motion 202 

height of design 227 

length of loop next to tuck stitch 214 

of yarn in square yard, stitches constant 31 

machine which does not twist yarn or fabric 108 

minimum weight per square yard 264 

positions of yarns for plating, illustrations 97-100 

pattern effects with double cam race 158 

with long and short latches 157 

practical variations 34 

importance of topic 6 

production, square yard, stitches constant 31 

range of designs 224 

relation of diameter of yarn to needle spacing 22 

of width of rib and flat fabrics 20 

of yarn-cut-rule constant and yarn diameter 55, 

to needle spacing 55 

number and cut 26 i 

and diameter 25 j 

numbers for rib and flat machines 125 1 

relative length of yarn used, different cuts 88 



Index 321 

Page 

Rule, relative length of yarn used, same cut and velocity. 87 

width of fabric from different machines 66 

reversal of the color of tuck figure 216 

revolution of yarn in seK-feeding needles 105 

single equivalent of three or more yarns 193 

of two yarns 192 

stitches of different characteristics 22 

stitch proportions for corresponding fabrics 21-22 

thickness of fabric 26 

tuck presser design, fundamental 221 

twist in flat fabric 108 

width of flattened tube or fabric 18 

of wale 26 

yarn-cut, yarn-gauge, different machines, table 53 

diameter for fabric as wide as straight machine ' 63 

width equal to machine diameter. ... 64 

for flat cotton fleeced goods 139 

number for fabric as wide as straight machine 63 

width equal to machine diameter 64 

S 

Sample design (see Analysis and Design). 

Seaming and finishing, floor-space allotment, table 118 

discussion 120 

required proportion of mill power, table 123 

Set, appHed to knitting miUs 116 

Sewing machines, number per set 116 

Shafting (see Hanger and Power). 

power transmission, table 288 

Single equivalent of two or more yarns 193 

Sinker-blade, discussion 142 

I thickness, loop-wheel, table 149 

Sinker bur 140 

Sinker loop 15 

Space allotment in knitting miUs 117 

Space, between needle and blade, loop-wheel, table 149 

floor, allotment in knitting mills, table 118 

knitting, expense 249 

floor, cost of maintenance 121 

?peed (see also Diametral-revolutions and Velocity). 



322 Index 

Page 

Speed, condition for high speed 67 

effect on economy 252 

of shafting, table 288 

Spindle, Spindles, mule, number per set IIG 

power per 100, table 121 

winder, number per set 116 

Nutaper, capacity, table 114 

formulas, table 114 

speed 114 

upright bobbin, capacity, table 115 

formulas, table 115 

speed 115 

Spinning, floor-space allotment, table 118 

relative to picking and carding 119 

Square roots, table 278 

Square yard (see Yard). 

Squares, table 278 

Standards (see Gauge, Cut, Motion, Diametral-revolutions). 
Stitch, Stitches. 

accordion, method of knitting 157-158 

adjustment 168 

definition 15 

distortion in the formation 35 

double-tuck, illustration 212 

effect on economy 254 

flat, plain, illustration of face 16 

marking for design analysis " 234 

number made by an average rib machine, table 185 

per pound-, formula 92 

of different characteristics 22 

of same characteristics 21 

per foot of yarn . 

and yarn diameter determine characteristics of 

fabric 29 

constant, yarn diameter varied 27 

counting, in sample 234 

effect on economics 259 

flat, for different yarn numbers, table 48 

formula, importance of 42 

from other fabric dimensions, formula 93 

in the three general fabric cases 26 



Index 323 

Page 

Stitch, per foot of yarn includes stitches on cyhnder only. 21 

length occupied in machines 68-70 

maximum and minimum, table 186 

relation to length of yarn in loop 19 

to weight per yard and yarn number, table ... 90 

rib, for different yarn numbers, table 40 

varied, j^arn diameter constant 32 

per hour, determination 78 

per inch, counting 168 

per needle, of an average rib machine 185 

per square inch, relation to yarn number 81 

for different rib-machine cuts, table 79 

rib, dimensions 21 

face, illustration K 21 

greatest number per foot of yarn, table 186 

least number per foot of yarn, table 186 

side, illustration 21 

ribber, adjustment 168 

summary 170 

short, for concealed yarn in plated work 99 

twist more than long 98 

single-tuck, illustration 211 

structure, dependent on yarn resilience 35 

tuck, adjoining in one course, illustration 213 

description 211 

distort fabric 213 

hmits 214 

representing on paper 230 

Storage, finished goods, floor space discussion 120 

floor-space allotment, table 118 

raw stock, floor-space discussion 119 

Straight machine (see Machine). 

Strength of knit fabrics 274 

Strip pattern (see Design and Pattern). 
Stripes (see also Design and Pattern). 

inchned by lap and by motion, table 226 

Suggestions for a course of reading 2 

Summary regarding twist of knit fabrics 113 

Suppositions of Elements of Knitting 16 



324 Index 



Tables (see the subject in this index, also separate list at 
front of book). 

Take-up, ribber 166 

Theory of knit fabrics ^66 

general considerations 212 

suggestions 11 

Thickness of fabric, flat, table 48 

rib, table 40 

Thicknesses of fabric per inch, flat, table 48 

rib, table 40 

Thread (see Yarn). 

Time, lost, causes 70-255-260 

in different units, tables 285 

Trigonometric functions, natural, table 282 

Trouble, cause and remedy, loop wheel 150 

ribbers 171 

in rib knitting, locating sources 167 

Tuck fabric (see also Fabric), rib, width variation from 

theoretical 58 

Tuck figure (see also Design). 

white block in mixed field, illustration 215 

Tuck stitch (see also Stitch). 

figures, latch-needle 153 

Twist in fabric caused by yarn twist 107 

effect of machine motion 108-111 

flat-fabric, made with self-feeding needles 101 

rule.... 108 

minor causes Ill 

rib 112 

right-hand, illustration 107 

summary, flat 116 

general 113 

rib 113 

Twist in yarn. 

affected by dehvery from yarn package 103 

determining extent 102 

extent 102 

illustration with strip of paper 102 

influence of knitting machine 108 



Index 325 

Page 

Twist in yarn, left-hand 102 

loop-distortion effect, illustrations 105-106 

right-hand 101 

Two-thread knitting. 

advantages 95 

casting-off from spring needle 99 

comparison of jack and rotary cast-offs. 99 

disadvantages 96 

helps to spring-needle plating 98 

importance of topic 9 

latch needle, illustration 100 

locating causes of defects 97 

plating 96 

inside of rib fabric 101 

silk and worsted 98 

position of threads in spring needle 9^ 

in latch needle, illustration 100 

reduction of fabric twist 113 

rolUng of yarn by rotary sinker 58 

separating the threads in feeding 97 

short stitch for concealed yarn 99 

stitches twist more than long stitches 98 

spring needle, illustration 97 

topic 95 

tracing trouble 101 

treatment of yarn 98 

two holes in carrier 101 

sinker burs 99 

yarn difficulties 98 

Types of machines (see also Machine). 

Cotton 24-53 

Fouquet .r. . . 24-202-265 

V 

Variable, defined 1 

Variation of yarn number on rib machine 67 

Velocity (see also Diametral-revolutions and Speed). 

difference between that of yarn and needles, table 159 

high, conditions for 67 

of needles in knitting machines, table 159 

of yarn feeding into knitting machine, table 159 



326 Index 

Page 

Vertical patterns in latch-needle knitting 155 

suggestions 11 



W 

Wale, Wales, definition 15 

per inch 18 

and courses, product, dependent on stitches 29 

formula, importance of 43 

from other fabric dimensions, formula 93 

relation to courses, regular fabrics 32-36-45 

for stitches constant and yarn 

variable 27 

for yarn variable, illustration 28 

size, comparison 18 

width, illustration 16 

in terms of yarn diameter 17 

Washing, floor-space allotment, table 118 

general allowance 1 19 

heat requirement 117 

required proportion of mill power, table 123 

Water, for knitting mill, consumption 117 

Weight per square yard, determined by weighing 95 

formula, derivation 89 

minimum 363 

illustration 264 

of knit goods, stitch constant 32-43 

table 90-91 

two yarns with dilTerent stitches, formula 93 

with the same stitches, formula 93 

Wheel, pattern (see Pattern). 

Width of fabric from different machines 63 

of flattened tube of fabric for different numbers of needles 

and yarn 57 

table 59 

Willkomm, Gustav 22-26-53 

Winder, capacity, Nutaper, table 114 

upright bobbin, table "... 115 

power, upright bobbin, tables 121-122 

spindles, number per set 116 

Winding and knitting, floor-space allotment, table 118 



Index 327 

Page 

Winding and knitting, floor-space discussion 119 

effect on economy 253 

required proportion of mill power, table 123 

Y 

Yard, linear production, example 75 

explanation of table 74 

factors 70 

table 76-77 

square, determining weight by weighing 95 

importance of topic. . . 8 

minimum weight 363 

importance of topic 11 

of cotton rib fabric, explanation of weight, table .... 92 

weight, table 90 

production, derivation 78 

example, wales and courses given 80 

factors 70 

general table 79 

regular table 81 

explanation 80 

stitches constant 31 

total of an average rib machine, table 185 

weight, formula, derivation 89 

flat fabric, from table 92 

formula for different yarn counts 94 

single-thread 92 

transformations 93 

two-thi"ead, different stitch 93 

same stitch 93 

stitch constant, proportioning 32 

Yarn, Yarns, carrier, adjusting 171 

conditions of feeding 104 

confusion between multiple-ply and multiple-thread 189 

consumption, in miles by an average rib machine, table. 185 

length, relative, two machines 88 

counts (see also Count, yarn) 187 

count definitions, importance 9 

counts used for different kinds of yarn 189 

diameter 13 



328 Index 

Page 

Yarn diameter and coils, table 196 

stitches per foot determine characteristics of fabric 29 

constant, stitches per foot varied 32 

distortions 34 

for fabric as wide as straight machine, rule 63 

width equal to machine diameter 64 

formula, importance 41 

from yarn-cut rule, formula 55 

rule 55 

in the three general fabric cases 26 

proportion of needle spacing, illustration 57 

table 56 

proportional to stitch dimensions in corresponding 

fabrics 21 

relation, to cut 23 

to needle spacing 22-53 

illustration 57 

importance of topic 7 

is elastic . 23 

proof 22 

rule 55 

table 56 

relative, for flat and rib machines 125 

topic, importance 5 

varied, stitches per foot constant 27 

difficulties, in two-thread work 98 

direction of revolution not determined by machine. ... Ill 

effect on economy 253 

exchanged at tuck and plain feeds 216 

length fed in equal needle travel, formula 87 

in fabrics of the same or different characteristics .... 22 

in square yard, stitches constant 31 

of one foot in needle, fiat and rib 70 

making, required proportion of mill power 123 

number, numbers, convenient equations for determining, 

table 191 

effect on economy 257 

for fabric as wide as straight machine, formula 63 

rule 63 

width equal to machine diameter, formula .... 64 

rule 64 



Index 329 

Page 

Yarn for flat cotton fleeced goods, table 139 

for latch-needle rib machines 163 

illustration 50 

for loop-wheel machines 129 

illustration 52 

formula, importance of 41 

from other fabric dimensions, formula . . 93 

meaning 1 

one of two equivalent to a given single yarn, table .... 198 

possible variation, rib machine 67 

proportional to square of cut 67 

relation, to cut 25 

to loop-wheel-machine gauge, illustration 52 

to rib-machine cut, illustration 50 

to stitches per square inch, formula 81 

to weight per yard and stitches, table ^0 

relative, for flat and rib machines 125 

rule, rules, for different machines, table 53 

yarn counts, discussion 1^3 

for flat cotton fleeced goods 139 

for one of two yarns equivalent to a single yarn . 192 

for relation to cut and gauge, importance 6 

rib-cut 49 

to gauge, loop-wheel 51 

for single equivalent of two yarns 192 

of three or more yarns 193 

single equivalent, derivation of formula 192 

example 71 

of two yarns, table 198 

to correspond to given conditions 258 

transformation table, importance. . ; 10 

variable, fabric relations, illustration 269 

ply, numbering 189 

relation to pattern wheel 216 

resilience affects loop structure 35 

revolved in feeding 105 

shape 34 

silk, plating 98 

space between needle and blade, loop wheel, table 149 

stitches per foot 19 

strength, explanation .- 274 



330 Index 

Page 

Yarn strength, fundamental formula 36-274 

suppositions for mathematical discussion 16 

twist due to delivery, illustration 104 

makes it revolve during feeding 104 

twisted by knitting machine 108 

during delivery from bobbin or cone 103 

velocity, less needle velocity, table 159 

table 159 

ways to control 98 

worsted, plating 98 



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